Russo-Ukrainian War: The Bayraktar TB2

 

     Appearing on some of the Instagram feeds are nocturnal aerial strikes against Russian supply convoys. Where are the strikes coming from? They are coming from Bayraktar TB2 UCAVs (Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle) fitted with MAM laser-guided smart bombs. MAM stands for Mini Akıllı Mühimmat, or Smart Micro Munition).

     The TB2 is built by the Turkish firm Baykar and entered service in 2014. Currently, the Ukrainian Air Force has six TB2 UCAVs known to be in active service though in October 2020, an order for 48 more drones was submitted. How many of those were ultimately delivered isn't known. The Ukrainian Navy also operates a handful of drones with an order for another four examples likely on hold due to the conflict.

     The TB2 requires a three man crew in the ground control station and the UCAV itself is 21 feet long with a wingspan of 39 feet. Power comes from a 100 horsepower IC (internal combustion) petrol engine which can push the drone to a maximum speed of 138 miles per hour with a regular cruise speed of 80 miles per hour. A 79 gallon fuel capacity can provide up to 27 hours of endurance. Range is limited to 93 miles with communication between the drone and control station occurring via line-of-sight propagation (that is, direct communication from the control station to the drone). The TB2 has a maximum ceiling of 27,000 feet though the usual operational altitude is lower at 18,000 feet.

     The TB2 has four hardpoints to mount laser-guided smart munitions. To deliver the ordnance, the TB2 has Electro-Optic/Infrared/Laser Designation imaging/targeting sensor systems. This can be switched out with multi-mode Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar if mission requirements demand it.

     Ukrainian TB2s are usually outfitted with the MAM-C or the MAM-L. The MAM series of weapons is also built by Turkey, developed by ROKETSAN and entering service around 2016. The MAM-C has a semi-active laser seeker with a maximum range of nearly 5 miles. It can be fitted with either a multi-purpose warhead (combining blast fragmentation, incendiary, and armor piercing capability) or a more standard high-explosive fragmentation warhead. The larger MAM-L also has a nearly 5 mile range but if fitted with a GPS system, it can reach a little over 8 miles. Like the MAM-C, the MAM-L can be fitted with a high-explosive fragmentation warhead but also a tandem High-Explosive Anti-Tank to defeat ERA (Explosive Reactive Armor) typically fitted to main battle tanks or can be fitted with a lethal thermobaric warhead which consumes oxygen to create a massive explosion and shock wave. Also, the MAM-L can be set to detonate on impact or proximity detonate.

     Some of the video feeds show TB2 strikes on Russian self-propelled surface-to-air missile systems (such as the 9K37 Buk, NATO codenamed SA-11 Gadfly or the modernized version, the SA-17 Grizzly) as well as supply vehicles. The former is a prime target as such missiles pose a very real threat to Ukrainian air power. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Ukrainian army fields some 72 9K37 systems though how many of them survived the initial Russian strike is unknown. As for hitting supply columns, some of the feeds show hits against fuel tankers or trucks likely to be carrying munitions. It would appear that these attacks on supply lines is having an effect as other reports state that Russian equipment is simply being abandoned for lack of fuel. A military runs on “beans and bullets” but also fuel and lubricants. Machinery cannot move if it has no fuel to run.

     It is also shocking the lack of convoy discipline in the Russian columns within the combat theater of operations. They use closed column which means less than 100 meters between vehicles. In some cases, the vehicles are back to back. This makes them highly vulnerable to air attack and any hit to one vehicle will most likely cause damage to surrounding vehicles. For example, U.S. Marine Corps doctrine is open column in active war zones with spacing of up to 200 meters between vehicles to reduce the vulnerability against air strikes and lessen the chance one hit on a vehicle takes out others. Of course, the further apart vehicles are reduces mutual support.

Originally posted on February 27, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: War Booty Near Kharkiv

     Ukrainian troops outside Kharkiv collect weapons and equipment from a destroyed Russian column. Besides looking for intelligence information in the wrecked vehicles, it is certain that any usable weapons and ammunition that is captured will be turned around and used against the Russians. Since there is commonality between some Russian and Ukrainian weapons, such captured guns can be used to replace inoperable ones as well as bolster the inventory of available weapons and ammunition.

     The captured weapons here include a 12.7mm Kord machine-gun in its vehicle mount configuration. The large box is for the 9M131 anti-tank missile used with the Russian Metis-M system. NATO code-named AT-13 “Saxhorn”, Metis-M is used by both Russia and Ukraine. There is what appears to be some form of disposable anti-tank weapon though it is difficult to say which make as much of it is covered up. Laying on top of the launch tube are two rockets for the RPG-7, if only judging by the size and the nozzles for the rocket. Although the RPG-7 was put into service in 1961, it remains in use around the world in modernized forms. Again, both Russia and Ukraine utilize the RPG-7.

     Each soldier looks to have a RPG-26 Algen single-shot, disposable anti-tank launcher over their shoulder but again, positive identification is difficult as much of the tube is hidden. The grenadier (who is touching the ushanka hat) is equipped with a AK-74M with an under-barrel 40mm GP-25 Kostyor (“Bonfire”) grenade launcher. Additional rounds of the caseless grenades are kept in a bandoleer. The other soldier has a AKS-74, characterized by the folding stock. It also has ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) plastic polymer stock/grip furniture due to the plum coloration.

     Russian troops have penetrated into Kharkiv's suburbs but these have been light attack units rather than the committal of heavier assets. These skirmishes have occurred on the outskirts of the city proper and no Russian forces have made it deeper. Reports show that Russian columns are bypassing Kharkiv which suggests that Russian troops deployed in the area may be there to contain Ukrainian forces or prevent reinforcements and/or supplies from getting into the city by blockading it. Given Kharkiv has some 1.4 million residents, a full scale assault into the city itself would be very costly.

Originally posted on February 27, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: Demolished Russian T-72B3

      Situated some 65 miles to the north of Kyiv, the city of Chernihiv sits along a main route from the country of Belarus into Kyiv. As such, the area around the city has become contested with Russian forces having surrounded the city on three sides in an effort to cut off the defenders from any support and commence their push on the city from three directions. This three pronged attack would have, as one objective, to spread out Ukrainian military forces across a wider front rather than allow them to concentrate their defense on one or two avenues of attack. Nevertheless, Ukrainian tank hunters around Chernihiv have destroyed, according to reports, more than 30 Russian tanks following attacks on Russian columns and the photograph here shows one of those kills.

     The demolished T-72B3 main battle tank was hit by a Javelin anti-tank missile with devastating effect. Where the missile struck is difficult to say but a side shot into the back portion of the tank is one possibility. Such a location has thinner armor and is usually not protected by reactive armor. Another is that the missile struck the top of the rear deck where the armor is not very thick. The Javelin, designated the FGM-148, is a U.S. designed missile, the replacement for the earlier M47 Dragon. The Javelin entered service in 1996 and remains in service with U.S. forces as well as the military forces of over 20 countries, including Ukraine. It is reported that there are some 377 launchers and 1,200 missiles in Ukrainian military hands based on purchase contracts prior to the outbreak of hostilities. Whether additional missiles can be delivered to replenish the stock remains to be seen.

     The Javelin consists of two parts: the Command Launch Unit (CLU) and the Launch Tube Assembly (LTA). The CLU contains all the needed optics to enable the gunner to acquire targets in day or night conditions. The LTA contains the missile inside a disposable tube. The CLU is fitted to the LTA and after firing, the CLU is detached and fitted to the next ready LTA. A typical Javelin team is two men. The missile uses a tandem-charge HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) shaped charge warhead which allows it to defeat ERA (Explosive Reactive Armor) and strike the main armor of the target. When used by infantry, the standard CLU permits a maximum effective range of 1.6 miles. The 19 pound warhead can penetrate over 750mm of regular RHA (Rolled Homogeneous Armor) or if facing tanks with ERA, the penetration drops to 600mm. The missile can use two attack profiles: a top attack profile to come down on top of the tank and a direct attack profile.

     So far, no Russian troops have moved into Chernihiv successfully, being repulsed by the defenders but given their isolated situation, it is difficult to say how long they can hold out.

Originally posted on February 26, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: Call To Arms in Dnipro

     The city of Dnipro is some 240 miles to the southeast of Kyiv. While it has been subjected to Russian missile/rocket strikes, it has yet to be threatened by Russian ground forces though Russian troops are in battle with Ukrainian forces around Kyiv, Kharkiv, and Mariupol which if one looks at map, means the city is practically surrounded by hostile forces except for the western side of Dnipro.

     The call to arms by this family in Dnipro is pretty evident in the photograph and that call means any weapon that is functional will be brought into action. While the shotgun is modern enough, the pistol beneath it is certainly not. It is a Mauser C96, better known by the nickname “Broomhandle” or in Chinese, the “Hézipào” or “Box Cannon”. The pistol entered service with Germany in 1896 and the popularity of the pistol saw it come in all kinds of varieties (mainly in ammunition caliber) and was copied by the Spanish gunmaker Astra and in China in Shanxi province by warlord Yen Hsi-shan. There have also been several copies of the C96 made as well throughout the decades. Over one million German built C96 pistols were produced with a unknown number of copies and variants. What version the pistol is cannot be readily said from this photograph but it does show that this venerable pistol may yet see battle once more.

Originally posted on February 26, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: Ukrainian Troops Outside Kharkiv

 

     The resolve of the Ukrainian defenders is borne out by the fact the Russians have failed to meet any of their first day mission objectives. Of course, the Russians have the ability to throw more men and material into the grinder and given time, can eventually wear down the Ukrainian defenses. The question is if Putin will commit those forces and continue to pay the price in Russian soldier blood.

     The photograph here shows Ukrainian soldiers outside Kharkiv, situated in positions to repel Russian attacks. The men are around a knocked out or disabled Russian MT-LB multi-purpose tracked vehicle. The MT-LB can carry eleven infantrymen but more often, it was used as a command vehicle, artillery tractor, or engineer/specialist vehicle. With a paltry 3mm to a maximum of 10mm of armor, the MT-LB is highly vulnerable to just about everything on the battlefield.

     To the far left of the photograph is a Ukrainian BMP-1 or a imported Czechoslovak BVP-1 infantry fighting vehicle. The Ukrainian army also fields an upgraded version, the BMP-1U and BMP-1M “Shkval” (“Squall”) which is equipped with a new turret fitted with a KBA-2 30mm autocannon, 9M113 Konkurs (“Contest”) anti-tank guided missile, and a AGS-17 “Plamya” (“Flame”) 30mm automatic grenade launcher.

Originally posted on February 25, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: Infiltration into Kyiv

     Russian troops claim to have taken Antonov Airport outside Hostomel which is northwest of Kyiv. It has been the focus of back and forth battle and if the Russians hold it, it means they can land very large transport planes there. There are also reports of firefights in the Obolonskyi District of Kyiv to the north of the city center. Ukrainian troops are fortifying the main city center, bridge crossings, and the Podil District.

     Kyiv's mayor, Vitali Klitschko, warned that the Russians would use infiltration tactics by wearing Ukrainian military uniforms, penetrating Ukrainian lines, and conducting sabotage operations. This photograph, if captioned correctly, appears to bear that out. The vehicle is a Russian Ural-4320 6X6 truck which is used by the Russian military but also the Ukrainian military so, it would be an obvious choice for a infiltration vehicle. Fitted in the bed of the truck is a ZU-23-2 which is a twin-barrel, 23mm anti-aircraft. Though developed in the 1950s, it remains in widespread service around the world to include, again, both Russia and the Ukraine. There are numerous instances in which Ukrainian trucks and even armored fighting vehicles were fitted with the ZU-23-2 for use by the Ukrainian military so, once more, it makes sense to set up the truck in such a fashion as it would not be totally out of line. The two dead men are reported to be Russians wearing Ukrainian uniforms and one can see numerous bullet impacts on the door and cab along with hits that blew oil all over the cab and ground. Fuel appears to be leaking from underneath the truck. The man on the ground was likely manning the ZU-23-2 as there is at least one bullet hit on the ammunition box.

     Of interest, the Ukrainian medic is wearing a mixture of military and civilian uniform items and equipment.

Originally posted on February 25, 2022.
 

 

Soviet T-35 Heavy Tank: Abandoned Outside of Lwów

 

Francis Pulham's excellent book entitled Fallen Giants: The Combat Debut of the T-35A Tank catalogs the fates of the 61 Soviet T-35 heavy tanks that went into battle in 1941 to repel the German invasion of Mother Russia. A 45-ton monster of a tank that had five turrets and featured heavily in pre-World War Two Soviet military parades, the T-35 rarely engaged German forces and instead, ended up broken down and abandoned due to mechanical problems. Even when they did, the T-35 had a maximum of 30mm of armor, paltry for a tank meant to operate independently as a breakthrough vehicle. Despite their poor combat history, the T-35 enthralled German soldiers who came across one and because of this, photographs taken by German soldiers and kriegsberichter (war correspondents) abound of the T-35 with which Pulham was able to illustrate his book.

While Pulham is able to identify most of the T-35 tanks, this particular tank remains unknown. Pulham believes it to be chassis number 0183-5 which was a T-35A built in 1936, one of sixteen produced that year. The tank was assigned to the 67th. Tank Regiment. Combat records for the regiment only list the tank as lost near Lwów (Lviv), Ukraine but no chassis number was given. Pulham examined known losses in the area and was able to identify the tank was abandoned along what is today the H17 highway, some 20 miles outside Lviv. Still, despite his evidence, Pulham cannot positively state the tank is, indeed, 0183-5.

Pulham's book uses a photograph similar to the one here, perhaps taken by soldiers in the same unit, which shows the T-35 as it was found. As the tank was in the road, a later photograph shows it pushed off into the ditch. The tracks had been removed and white bands were painted on the left rear of the tank as a warning to drivers at night as the left side was still partially in the roadway. The white paint was repeated on the left front as well. A third picture in the book shows the derelict T-35 with some missing components, namely the turret mounted antenna. Following the war, the tank was most likely scrapped.

Primary Source:

Pulham, Francis Fallen Giants: The Combat Debut of the T-35A Tank (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Fonthill Media, 2017)

Russo-Ukrainian War: 108th. Territorial Defense Brigade

     Ukrainian men, belonging to the 108th. Territorial Defense Brigade, training. While there is a Ukrainian national socialist movement, Putin's excuse that the Ukrainian government is riddled with Nazis and drug addicts and needs to be overthrown by the Ukrainian military is laughable.

Originally posted on February 25, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: Ukrainian Troops in Kyiv

     Ukrainian troops in Kyiv. Putin is looking to have talks. I suspect he has some idea of how badly it will go for him if his troops move into Kyiv proper. Urban combat favors the defenders in many ways so that they can inflict far more significant casualties against the attacker. For Putin's forces to have any chance, they'd have to level Kyiv in the same manner the Red Army pounded Berlin in 1945. Mass artillery, rocket, and bomber strikes coupled with a very large ground offensive. Even then, turning Kyiv into ruins only adds to the defensive capability of surviving Ukraine forces thanks to the rubble. Of course, there will sure to be international outrage if Putin proceeds with such an attack. If he does not and there are rules of engagement the Soviet troops need to follow, then it will be a very bloody slog for the Soviets.

Originally posted on February 25, 2022.

Russo-Ukrainian War: Ukrainian Soldiers Outside Kharkiv

 

     Ukrainian soldiers outside Kharkiv. The ATGM (Anti-Tank Guided Missile) system set up to fire down the road is the Ukrainian designed Skif (meaning "Scythian"). Using the 152mm tandem-charge HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) missile, the Skif can punch through 1,100mm of armor behind ERA (Explosive Reactive Armor) as the tandem nature of the dual warhead allows it to defeat the ERA protection and strike the main armor beneath it.

Originally posted on February 24, 2022.

Soviet T-34 Model 1941 Medium Tank: Demolished in the Snow

      In 1941 and into 1942, the sight of knocked out Soviet tanks was a fairly common sight. This demolished T-34 was struck at least twice in the rear, one shot breaking the right track and a hit into the engine compartment. The penetration blew apart the back of the tank, rending the rear and deck armor. The tank was also set ablaze by the strike and this can be seen in the scorched remains of the rear hull and along the turret where the paint shows the evidence of the now died out fire. If one looks carefully, smoke is still issuing from the wreckage.

     When the T-34 was first encountered by the Germans in combat during the invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), starting on June 22, 1941, the tank came as a nasty surprise. In part, this was due to the belief in the higher levels of German command that the Soviets were incapable of fielding a modern tank. This notion was strengthened by the fact that the Soviet tank forces were equipped primarily with tanks that were adapted from foreign tank designs from the late 1920s and early 1930s. For example, the Soviet T-26 light tank was derived from the British Vickers 6-ton tank (whose design started in 1928) and the BT fast tank from the American M1931 tank. These tanks made up the bulk of Soviet tank forces in 1941 but Soviet tank designers knew that these tank designs were on borrowed time. As a side, it should be noted that the Soviets deployed three new heavy tanks in their war with Finland during the Winter War which occurred from November 30, 1939 to March 13, 1940. These new heavy tanks, the SMK, T-100, and KV-1, were reported to the Germans by the Finnish. In particular, the Finns told the Germans that the KV-1 was a formidable foe due to its thick armor. However, this appeared to have little effect on the German command's opinion of Soviet armor.

     The Soviets, though, as far back as 1937, began work on a replacement for the BT series of tanks. What resulted was the A-20 which utilized a diesel fuel engine (less flammable) but more importantly, used sloped armor derived from experimental BT projects (such as the BT-IS). By sloping the armor, it increases the effectiveness of the armor both by shot deflection potential as well as increasing the relative thickness of the armor based on the angle of the plate. Lessons learned from the Soviet skirmishes with the Japanese in Manchuria in 1938 saw the A-20 prototype joined by a newer, improved tank designated the A-32. More heavily armored and armed, the A-32 went against the A-20 in trials and it was the A-32 that came out the victor. Approval for production was granted for the A-32 as the T-34. Deliveries of the new T-34 medium tank began in 1940.

     Many consider the T-34 tank the best medium tank of World War Two and on paper, the T-34 did combine armor protection, mobility, and firepower very well. However, the T-34, when it first appeared in Soviet units in 1940 and then in battle in the summer of 1941, had many flaws that blunted the impact of the new tank. Mechanically, the T-34 had problems. Initial low production quality saw the expected life span of the engines diminished. In addition, the gearbox and transmission was also prone to breaking. The latter saw some crews strapping a replacement transmission onto the engine deck of their tanks on the chance their unit's supply train had no spares if difficulties arose. Only into 1943 could the factories guaranty a service life of at least 100 hours. Another issue was the poor deployment of the T-34 in combat and the crews that were, as a whole, little trained on the T-34. By consequence, these two factors squandered the capability of the tank. It was not long before German troops in the field got over their initial reactions to the new tank and simply adjusted tactics to deal with them effectively. Nevertheless, the T-34 became the de facto Soviet medium tank of World War Two and later models, such as the T-34-85, continue to see service in the world today.

     Returning to the destroyed tank here, it is notable for the cross-hatch camouflage pattern seen on the turret. The tank is likely a T-34 Model 1941 built by the STZ Factory if judging by the bolted rear plate on the turret. This same tank was designated by the Germans as the T-34/76B. Many sources attribute the cross-hatch camouflage to select units, such as the 11^th. Tank Brigade or the 1^st. Guards Tank Brigade. This, however, would be incorrect. The reason is because the camouflage, consisting of white wash over the tank's base dark green paint, was applied at the factory and not by units in the field. Thus, any unit that was shipped replacement tanks (or equipped with them from the outset) from the factory would receive them with the camouflage already applied. It does appear, however, that this particular camouflage pattern appeared in the winter of 1941 disappeared after the winter of 1942. As a note, this same style of camouflage was also applied to other equipment, such as trucks and even artillery, and was not exclusive to armor.

Primary Source:

Michulec, Robert and Zientarzewski, Mirosław T-34: Mythical Weapon (Mississauga, Ontario: Air Connection, 2007)

Ordnance QF 3.7" Mountain Gun: Veteran of the Indian Artillery Arm

     Photographed sometime in the summer or early fall of 1962, Sikh artillerymen of the Indian Army train with a well worn Ordnance QF (Quick Firing) 3.7” (94mm) mountain howitzer. The crew's training is being overseen by a Junior Commissioned Officer (JCO) who holds the rank of Naib Subedar. This can be told by the shoulder boards on his uniform shirt that are olive drab in color with a red and yellow band and a gold-hued metal rank pip. For training purposes, the gun shield wasn't needed but as the firing table was affixed to the right portion of the shield, it has been fitted to the gun carriage for the crew to reference.

     It is likely that the men are part of the Sikh Regiment, a prestigious and highly decorated unit that was formed on August 1, 1846. Today, the Sikh Regiment is made up of twenty infantry battalions with another three Sikh battalions in the the Territorial Army (a volunteer reserve force). The unit saw combat in many campaigns through the years, including the Second Opium War (in China), the Second and Third Anglo-Afghan Wars, World War One and Two, and numerous post-World War Two conflicts such as the Indo-Pakistani War (1947-48) and the Sino-Indian War which occurred from October 20, 1962 through November 21, 1962.

     The catalyst for the Sino-Indian War was the disputed Himalayan border between China and India. As far back as 1959, Chinese and Indian troops fought the occasional skirmish as India's pro-Tibet stance was objected to by China, not the least of which China blamed India for supporting the 1959 Tibetan Uprising. In 1960, India commenced the Forward Policy which saw Indian forces setting up outputs behind Chinese troops in order to sever Chinese supply lines, the intent being to force Chinese troops to retreat. The history of the events that led up to the Sino-Indian War is rich with political machinations, far too many to cover but suffice it to say, on October 20, 1962, the Chinese abandoned a diplomatic resolution to the many issues of contention and outright pushed forces into the disputed territory which ultimately resulted in the Chinese pushing Indian forces out and the Chinese held their Line of Actual Control, a demarcation line that some historians believe was created following the Chinese military gains during the war. Even to this day, the border area remains in dispute despite a formalizing of the line in 1993 under the Border Peace and Tranquility Agreement. 

     During the brief conflict, Subedar Joginder Singh Sahnan of the 1st. Battalion, Sikh Regiment was the only member of the regiment to be decorated for valor with the Param Vir Chakra (PVC), though it was done so posthumously. During the Battle at Bum La which occurred on October 23, 1962, twenty men (including Singh) from the 1st. Battalion manned a post at the Bum La Pass that connects Cona County, Tibet and the Tawang District in India. Chinese troops, marching on Tawang, hurled two waves of attacks against the post to dislodge the defenders. Despite each wave numbering some 200 men, the Sikh soldiers threw the Chinese back but lost half their number in the process. When the third and final wave came, Singh (who was, by this time, wounded) refused to leave his post and out of ammunition, his men fixed bayonets and charged the Chinese troops. This bold counter-attack initially caused panic in the Chinese but soon, their superior numbers won the day and Singh and his men were cut down or captured. Singh himself survived the battle but died of his wounds in Chinese captivity. Singh had been in service since 1936 and saw combat in World War Two and the Indo-Pakistani War in 1947. The PVC is India's highest military decoration, awarded for distinguishing acts of valor during wartime.

     Returning to the QF 3.7” mountain gun, the design dates back to 1912 when the Indian military of the British Army wanted a more modern mountain gun to replace the aging 10-pounder mountain gun that had entered service in 1901. The new gun first entered service in 1917, being blooded in battle during the later stages of the Mesopotamian Campaign during World War One. Later versions built in the early 1930s saw the carriage modified with a new gun shield and rubber tires on metal rims rather than the original wooden, spoked wheels shown here. As can be seen, even well after World War Two, the Indian Army still retained these guns as there was nothing suitable to replace them. The gun was also manufactured in India during World War Two. As a mountain gun, it was able to be broken down into eight pack animal (mules, usually) loads. A well trained crew could set up the gun in just under two minutes and break it down in three minutes. A gun crew consisted of six men: commander, gunner, breech operator, loader, and two ammunition handlers. Total weight was 1,610 pounds with a barrel length of 3.8 feet. The gun used a hydro-pneumatic recoil system and the split-trail carriage permitted a maximum gun depression of 5 degrees, a maximum elevation of 40 degrees and a left and right traverse of 20 degrees. The typical muzzle velocity was 973 feet per second that provided a maximum range of 3.4 miles. The gun fired High-Explosive, fragmentation, smoke/chemical, illumination, and High-Explosive Anti-Tank ammunition.

     The 3.7” mountain gun remained in service into the early 1970s in the Indian Army though the British had declared it obsolete in 1960. Today, the Indian Army is equipped with the Italian designed and built OTO-Melara Mod 56 105mm pack howitzer for use in mountainous terrain.

Primary Sources:

Clarke, Dale British Artillery 1914-19 (Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004)

Hogg, Ian V. Allied Artillery of World War Two (Ramsbury: The Crowood Press, Ltd., 2001)

On the March: German Stoßtruppen

      Somewhere at the front in 1918, a German stosstrupp (assault troop) unit is shown on the march. The stosstruppen, by 1918, were elite soldiers with a strong esprit de corps whose tactics had a marked influence on post-World War One small unit employment methodology. First authorized on March 2, 1915, the stosstruppen were used to punch through enemy lines and they did so using a combination of weapons, including light field guns or mortars that the troops would drag through No Man's Land in order to engage enemy positions at short range. The structure of a stosstrupp was often in flux but a typical Sturmbataillone consisted of a Stab (headquarters), five Sturmkompagnien (with 255 men in total), one to two Maschinengewehrkompanie (machine-gun companies with up to twelve machine-guns), one Flammenwerfertrupp (flamethrower platoon with four to eight flamethrowers), and one Infanterie-Geschutz-Batterie (infantry gun battery with four guns) or one Minenwerferkompagnie (mortar company with four mortars).

     The burden of the individual soldier is evident here. It isn't possible to tell what type of uniform he is wearing but it is likely the simplified M1915 bluse (tunic) and for hosen (trousers), he possibly has a pair of baggy M1917 hosen. Upon his head, he is wearing the stahlhelm (steel helmet) which was introduced in 1916. Without being able to see the chinstraps and liner inside the helmet, it isn't possible to tell what model of the stahlhelm (M1916, M1917, or M1918) he has. On his back, we can see his “Angriff Gepäck”, or “assault pack”. In this case, he has wrapped his mantel (greatcoat) inside his M1892 zeltbahn (tent half) and secured it with leather straps. Attached to the pack is his well used M1908 mess kit (eßgeschirr). Next to the pack is a M1822 shovel, secured in a carrier attached to his belt (koppel) while a loop can be seen holding the handle, the other end of the loop fitted through the shoulder board of the bluse. This type of shovel was used by assault troops to rapidly dig-in on the attack as it was better at such a task than the smaller M1887 entrenching tool (kleiner spaten) typically carried by German infantrymen. Underneath the shovel carrier is his M1915 canteen (feldflasche) which is likely attached to his M1887 bread bag (brotbeutel). To the left of the shovel's handle (as one looks at the photograph) is the bayonet for his rifle, secured in a scabbard. To the left of the bayonet is the round metal canister for his gasmask (bereitschaftsbüchsen) within which was most likely a M1917 lederschutzenmaske (leather protective mask) if judging by the size of the canister. Wrapped around his lower legs are puttees (gamaschen or wickelbander), his feet in leather ankle boots (schnürschuhe) with hobnailed soles.

     For a weapon, he is equipped with a 7.92mm Karabiner 98AZ rifle. This can be told by the front sight and the turn-down bolt handle. The standard Gewehr 98 rifle as used by the vast majority of the German army was longer (4.1 feet) and used a straight bolt handle. The 98AZ, on the other hand, was shorter (3.6 feet) and the turn-down bolt handle lessened the chances of getting caught on the soldier's equipment. The 98AZ had a 5-round internal magazine, had a weight of 8 pounds, and used a tangent leaf rear sight adjustable up to 2,000 meters. The barrel featured a 4-groove, right-hand twist rifling. As a side note, after World War One, 98AZ rifles were re-designated as Model 98a rifles.

     Hefted on his shoulder, the soldier looks to be carrying a wooden crate for stick hand grenades (stielhandgranaten). Each crate could hold 25 grenades and given the year, the contents were either M1916 or M1917 grenades.

Primary Sources

Bull, Stephen Stormtrooper (London: Publishing News Ltd., 1999)

Drury, Ian German Stormtrooper 1914-1918 (London: Osprey, 1995)