Oberleutnant Heinz Halmes (Luftlandebrigade 25)

Source: Author's collection.

     Little is known about the military history of Heinz Halmes. Much of what is known comes from scattered sources including, among others, a 2015 auction in München, Germany of award documents and the soldbuch (pay book) which belonged to Halmes. Halmes was born in Aachen, Germany on April 6, 1923 and his military career, at least what has been found in documentation, started sometime in 1942 when Halmes entered into the Luftwaffe as a Fallschirmjäger (paratrooper) and held the rank of Gefreiter (equivalent to a U.S. Air Force Airman rank). His initial posting was with Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 5. This was a unit first formed in May 1942 and consisted of three battalions. I. Bataillon and III. Bataillon trained for Unternehmen Herkules (Operation Hercules, the invasion of Malta) at Truppenübungsplatz Mourmelon (Military Training Area Mourmelon) which was located near Reims, France while II. Bataillon was shipped to Africa and placed under Fallschirmjäger-Brigade Ramcke. However, the Allied landings in Algeria on November 7, 1942 (and the eventual cancellation of the Malta invasion that same month) saw the two battalions in France sent to Tunisia to join up with the II. Bataillon. The regiment saw heavy combat in defensive positions around Medjez El Bab starting on November 20, 1942 and in the face of American armored attacks, gave ground five days later. II. Bataillon suffered severe casualties and further action south of Tunis against British paratroopers saw the III. Bataillon worn down. Enough reinforcements arrived to reconstitute the II. Bataillon but by December 1942, hard, but successful, defensive combat around Tebourba and Fourna stymied the Allied advance towards Tunis. What remained of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 5 was renamed as Jäger-Regiment "Hermann Göring" in January 1943 and operated under Panzer Division "Hermann Göring". It saw extensive combat from April 1943 to May 6, 1943 and suffered very heavy casualties in the fighting. Many of the survivors went into captivity but others, including a sizable number from the remains of II. Bataillon, managed to be evacuated by ship to Italy. The survivors were assembled into II./ Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 5 and placed under the 2. Fallschirmjäger Division where the battalion fought briefly in Italy through September 1943 before being transferred along with the 2. Fallschirmjäger Division to the Eastern Front in October 1943. The battalion saw action around Kirovograd but in January 1944, the battalion was withdrawn and sent to France where it would become Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 16, 6. Fallschirmjäger-Division.

     Prior to the unit change to Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 16, Halmes had been promoted to Unteroffizier (other sources say Oberjäger) which was equivalent to a Sergeant in the U.S. Air Force. In this period of time, Halmes had earned the Eisernes Kreuz 2. Klasse (Iron Cross 2nd. Class) on December 19, 1942, the Verwundetenabzeichen 3. Klasse (Wound Badge in Black) on May 6, 1943, the Medaille für den Italienisch-Deutschen Feldzug in Afrika (Italo-German Campaign Medal in Africa) on June 30, 1943, the Erdkampfabzeichen der Luftwaffe (Luftwaffe Ground Assault Badge) on July 10, 1943, the Ärmelband Afrika (Africa campaign cufftitle) on July 14, 1943, and the Fallschirmschützenabzeichen der Luftwaffe (Parachutist Badge) on September 23, 1943.

     As 1944 arrived, Halmes was promoted again, this time to a Fähnrich (officer candidate) and he was made Zugführer (platoon leader) of 1. Zug (1st. Platoon), 11. Kompanie, Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 16. The 6. Fallschirmjäger-Division saw combat during the Normandy Invasion but Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 16 was pulled from the West Front in June 1944 and shifted to Heeresgruppe Nord (Army Group North) on the Eastern Front. It saw brief combat in Lithuania under Kampfgruppe Oberst Schirmer from July 1944 to September 1944. On September 24, 1944, the unit was renamed to Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier-Division 3 "Hermann Göring" while in Radom, Poland. On October 28, 1944, he was made company commander of 11. Kompanie, III. Bataillon, Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 16. By this time, Halmes had received the Eisernes Kreuz 1. Klasse (Iron Cross 1st. Class) on April 5, 1944 and the Deutsches Kreuz im Gold (German Cross in Gold) on October 19, 1944. Halmes, for a very brief period of time, had been transferred into Fallschirmjäger-Regiment z.b.V. which was formed on November 25, 1944. By the close of December 1944, Halmes was the company commander for 7. Kompanie, Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 3 ”Hermann Göring”. In this brief period, Halmes was awarded the Nahkampfspange in Silber (Close Combat Clasp in Silver) and the Panzerkampfabzeichen der Luftwaffe 3. Klasse (Luftwaffe Tank Battle Badge 3rd. Class), both dated December 15, 1944. At some point late in 1944, Halmes was promoted to Oberfähnrich (the highest rank of officer candidate) as in 1945, he graduated and was commissioned as a Leutnant. His last award was the Verwundetenabzeichen 2. Klasse (Wound Badge in Silver) which was received on January 24, 1945.

     What happened to Halmer following World War Two isn't known. However, this photograph of him shows that he survived any captivity and entered into the Bundeswehr as, not surprisingly, a paratrooper. On his left shoulder is the patch for Luftlandebrigade 25 ”Schwarzwald“ (Airborne Brigade 25 “Black Forest”) of the 1. Luftlandedivision. His rank, as denoted by the two rank pips on his shoulder boards, is that of a Oberleutnant (1st. Lieutenant). His ribbon bar consists solely of his World War Two decorations as per the 1957 regulations. The top row, from the left, is his German Cross, Iron Cross 1st. Class, Iron Cross 2nd. Class, and the Close Combat Clasp. The second row is his Wound Badge in Silver, Luftwaffe Ground Assault Badge, Luftwaffe Tank Battle Badge, and the Africa Campaign Title. The last row is his Parachutist Badge and the Italo-German Campaign Medal in Africa.

     Halmer died on July 14, 2009 in St. Ingbert-Hassel, Germany at the age of 86.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The PT-91 Twardy Main Battle Tank

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     Starting in April 2023, the Ukrainian Army began receiving the PT-91 Twardy (“Hard”) main battle tank as part of Poland's sizable military contribution to Ukraine. In all, sixty tanks have been provided. The PT-91 is derived from the T-72M1 which is a Polish license built T-72A, the latter's production having started in 1983. Development of the PT-91 started in 1991 and the objective was to modernize the T-72M1 using as many Polish produced components as feasible in order to be as independent from imported matériel as possible. In 1993, a purchase order was placed for twenty examples for field trials and after acceptance, the first production PT-91 tanks reached Polish armor units beginning in 1998. In the photograph, the crew of a PT-91 belonging to the 22nd. Mechanized Brigade “Mykolaiv” performs repair or maintenance on the running gear.

     Power for the 46-ton PT-91 comes from the S-12U, 12-cylinder, water-cooled, turbocharged diesel engine that generates 850 horsepower. Built by PZL-Wola, the S-12U is a Polish variant of the old Soviet 780 horsepower V-46-6 diesel engine. The S-12U features a updated fuel injection system along with air injection system to more efficiently burn off exhaust gases. This engine is mated to a manual transmission with an 8-speed gearbox (7 forward, 1 reverse). The top road speed the PT-91 can attain is 37 miles per hour while 264 gallons of diesel fuel give the tank a maximum operational range of 403 miles. If fitted with external fuel tanks, the operational range increases to 434 miles.

     For a main armament, the PT-91 uses the exact same 2A46 125mm smoothbore gun as the T-72M1. However, the Soviet-era 2E28M 2-plane gun stabilizer is replaced with a more modern stabilizer produced in Slovakia (one of the few imported components) which is tied into the tank's SKO-1M Drawa-1T FCS (Fire Control System). The Drawa-1T FCS is a suite which includes the PCD gunner's sight, the TES thermovision night sight (developed by the Israeli company El-Op), a POD-72 commander's day/night sight, laser rangefinder, and a ballistic computer. The latter calculates the targeting requirements based on the tank's speed, the target's speed, weather conditions, the type of round being fired, and even the temperature of the round. The output is displayed on a monitor and the computer will even state when the probability of a successful hit on a target is minimal. Like the T-72M1, the PT-91 uses a automatic loader which is fed via a ammunition carousel located beneath the turret. A total of 42 rounds of ammunition are carried. This provides for a maximum rate of fire between 8 to 10 rounds per minute. The turret provides 360 degrees of traverse for the 2A46 while the gun mount offers a maximum elevation of 14 degrees and a maximum depression of 6 degrees.

     The 2A46 can fire a multitude of ammunition types. An example of a APFSDS (Armor-Piercing, Fin-Stabilized, Discarding Sabot) round is the 3VBM11 which can penetrate 410mm of RHA (Rolled Homogeneous Armor) at a 0 degree slope at a range of 1.2 miles and with a 60 degree slope, the penetration is 200mm. The 3VBK27, a HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) round, can drill through 350mm of armor at a 60 degree slope out to 1.8 miles. The more standard 3VOF22 HE (High-Explosive) round can be fired out to a range of 2.5 miles. The PT-91 is not believed to be capable of using the Russian 9M119 Svir (NATO reporting name AT-11 Sniper) tube-launched, laser guided anti-tank missile. 

     Secondary armament includes a coaxial 7.62mm PKT machine-gun provided with 2,000 rounds and a 12.7mm NSVT heavy machine-gun fitted to a pintle mount next to the commander's cupola on the turret. A total of 300 rounds for the NSVT is typically carried.

     The effective armor protection of the PT-91 and its crew of three (commander, driver, and gunner) is not specified but the standard thickness (not accounting for sloping) of the T-72M1 upon which the PT-91 is derived from sports 220mm thick front hull armor, 240mm of armor on the turret front, 200mm on the sides and rear of the turret, and up to 190mm of armor on the hull sides and rear. On the upper hull front, 16mm thick high hardness steel armor is added to boost protection. The PT-91 utilized by Ukraine are fitted with the distinctive Polish developed ERAWA-1 explosive reactive armor (ERA). It is characterized by having more squarish blocks (rather than the rectangular blocks used by the common Russian Kontakt-1 ERA) and with barely any gap between the blocks when mounted. A complete ERAWA-1 arrangement consists of a total of 394 blocks arranged on the turret, front upper hull, and sides. ERAWA-1 will not be triggered by being hit by small arms calibers nor by light cannon rounds up to and including 30mm ammunition. ERAWA, assuming it is struck by a incoming munition, offers between 95% to 100% protection against HEAT rounds from weapons such as the RPG-7. Against larger HEAT munitions, the protection is still excellent with a 65% to 70% protection versus the 125mm HEAT round and anti-tank weapons such as the Swedish AT4 (which is utilized by the Ukrainian Army). However, like any ERA, it is susceptible to defeat by tandem-charge warheads.

     Other defensive systems include the PCO SSC-1 Obra-1 laser warning system. The Obra-1 consists of four sensors on the exterior of the hull and these can detect when the tank is “painted” by laser rangefinders or laser illuminators which are used most often by laser guided anti-tank missiles. These sensors are tied into a control unit with a display for the crew. In addition, the PT-91's smoke grenade launchers, 24 in all, are also tied into the control unit. When set to automatic, if the tank is painted, the Obra-1 detects the direction, warns the crew, and triggers the grenade launchers to fire and create a smoke screen between the tank and the origin of the laser. With the crew taking evasive action and the smoke degrading the laser's effectiveness and obscuring the missile operator's view, the Obra-1 offers a higher survival chance against laser guided missiles. It is possible for the Obra-1 to work semi-automatically in which the tank commander decides if the smoke grenades are launched and there is also a manual mode in which the Obra-1 simply warns of the “painting” and from what direction and the commander then has to determine which grenade launcher battery to use in addition to firing them. Besides smoke grenades, the launchers can be fitted with non-lethal tear gas grenades or fragmentation anti-personnel grenades. Further defensive equipment has the crew and engine compartments fitted with automatic fire detection/suppression systems and NBC (Nuclear Biological Chemical) protective apparatus. The PT-91 can also generate a smoke screen by dumping fuel onto the hot exhaust.

     Finally, the driver's station is equipped with a US-DK-1 panel which provides the driver with full control over the tank's systems and also it can run and display diagnostic test results onto a display. For night driving, the station is equipped with a Radomka passive night sight.

     As of January 2025, the Ukrainian Army has lost a total of eleven PT-91 tanks.

Remnants of War: Mittlerer Schützenpanzerwagen S307(f) mit Reihenwerfer (21. Panzer-Division)

Source: Facebook

     On October 23, 1942, the Allies launched a three part plan under Operations Lightfoot, Bertram, and Braganza which began the Second Battle of El Alamein. Facing the Allies was Panzerarmee Afrika commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel. Included in the order of battle for the Germans was the 21st. Panzer Division (21.Pz.Dv.) and when the Second Battle of El Alamein concluded in an Allied victory on November 11, 1942, 21.Pz.Dv. was a shell of itself with only four total tanks left operational. After fighting rear-guard actions to cover the German retreat, what was left of 21.Pz.Dv. was split into two kampfgruppen (battle groups); Kampfgruppe Pfeiffer and Kampfgruppe Gruen. Following the Battle of Kasserine Pass which occured from February 19 through February 24, 1943, the 21.Pz.Dv. ceased to be when Major General Von Hulsen surrendered the tattered remains of one of the most potent units within the Deutsches Afrikakorps on May 13, 1943.

     Beginning in June 1943, in France, the Germans commenced to organizing a new type of combat unit whose key asset was being highly mobile and thus able to rapidly deploy to locations where they were most needed. In essence, these new units were to be “fire brigades” to be rushed around the front where required in order to bolster the strength of local forces. The first of these units was Schnelle Division West (Fast Division West) and its creation was directly in response to what the Germans knew was coming; the Allied invasion of Europe. Schnelle Division West was to be completely motorized in regards to combat units as well as support units such as artillery and logistical assets. In fact, Schnelle Division West would be more motorized than the standard Heer (Army) panzer division. There was a rather large problem which put a severe crimp in the idea of Schnelle Division West.The problem was that German industry could not supply enough vehicles to equip the division and make the totally mobile force a reality. The Germans were only able to equip a single brigade and so the unit changed names to Schnelle Brigade West. However, the Germans went about the process of scraping together as much armor and vehicles as possible to push the unit to division size. A good part of this process was utilizing captured French tanks and light armored vehicles but the Germans wanted to make these tanks and vehicles more useful and more potent and for that, they called in one Major Alfred Becker.

     Becker, a mechanical engineer by trade, was an artillery officer both in World War One and World War Two. As much of the German artillery forces relied on horses to move their guns and ammunition trains, Becker believed in mobility but being an engineer, he began to convert captured British light tanks and Bren carriers into self-propelled guns and munition carriers while his unit (Infantarie Division 227 "Rheinisch-Westfälische") was on garrison duty in France. Within six months, he and his fellow engineers, mechanics, and metal workers assembled a complete self-propelled gun battery. Soon, Becker and his unit was sent to the Eastern Front as part of Heeresgruppe Nord (Army Group North) and there, his mobile battery proved an immense success to the point it was often used as a “fire brigade” and deployed where it was needed. In order to meet the threat of new Soviet tanks, the T-34 medium tank and the KV-1 heavy tank, Altmärkische Kettenwerk GmbH, better known as Alkett, sent modified French Renault R35 light tanks equipped with the 47mm PaK(t) anti-tank gun to Russia as the 4,7 cm PaK(t) Panzerjäger Geschützwagen 35R(f) tank destroyer. To make a lengthy story more brief, Becker was recalled to Germany and directed to partner with Alkett and formulate a way to repurpose captured tanks and vehicles. After spending a short time in Germany, Becker was sent back to France and given the monumental task of scavenging the French countryside for any and all French and British tanks and armored vehicles, collecting them all, figuring out how to re-purpose them, then produce enough such tanks and vehicles to equip two panzer divisions. And so by June 17, 1943, Baukommando Becker (Construction Unit Becker) was able to supply Schnelle Brigade West with enough additional armored vehicles to restore it to division size. On June 27, 1943, the unit was re-designated as the 21.Pz.Dv. in honor of the original unit and put under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel. Becker himself was put in command of the 21.Pz.Dv.'s assault gun battalion, Panzerjäger-Abteilung 200.

     The remains of the vehicle in the photograph is a French SOMUA MCL half-track which Alkett repurposed as a self-propelled barrage mortar. The long German designation for it was Mittlerer Schützenpanzerwagen S307(f) mit Reihenwerfer (Medium Armored Personnel Carrier S307(f) with “Row Thrower”). The Reihenwerfer consisted of sixteen captured French 81mm Brandt Mle 27/31 mortars, known as the Granatwerfer 278(f) (Gr.W 278(f)) in German service, set in a frame with two rows of eight mortar tubes. The entire frame sat on a turntable which allowed for 360 degree rotation and the tubes could be elevated from 35 degrees up to a maximum of 90 degrees. To ensure a wider distribution of rounds on the target, the lower set of tubes had a slight outward angle. In operation, the firing mechanism held a round in the top of each mortar tube and when the gunner pulled the lanyard, the rounds would drop down their respective tubes, strike the firing pin at the bottom of each tube, and then be launched towards the target. A total of 90 rounds of ammunition was available for the mortars and the front of the half-track, cab, and a portion of the rear deck was protected with 12mm thick armor. For self-defense, a MG 34 or MG 42 machine-gun was carried on the vehicle. In all, Alkett produced sixteen of the Reihenwerfer equipped MCL half-tracks and all of them went to 21.Pz.Dv., likely deployed with the Nebelwerfer companies of Panzer-Grenadier-Regiment 192 (mot.) and Panzer-Grenadier-Regiment 152, these being 10.Kompanie (s-Werfer) and 10.Kompanie (Werfer) respectively.

     The 21.Pz.Dv. was the only armored unit that contested the initial D-Day landing, namely at Juno Beach. Not surprisingly, it bore the brunt of Allied attacks as the U.S. and British/British Commonwealth forces pushed further inland. The unit was bleeding tanks with losses never being completely made up by replacements despite being able to achieve almost a 2 to 1 kill ratio. The last gasp for 21.Pz.Dv. Came when it was nearly wiped out in the Kessel von Falaise, the Falaise Pocket, which was closed by the Allies on August 21, 1944. The remnants were bolstered with the remains of Luftwaffen-Feld-Divisionen 16 and retreated to Lorraine where it was further battered down before its ranks were again increased by absorbing the remains of Panzer-Brigade 112. The unit would participate in the last major German offensive of the war, Unternehmen Nordwind (Operation Nordwind), from December 31, 1944 to January 25, 1945 before being redeployed to the Eastern Front where it was demolished by the Soviets during the Kesselschlacht von Halbe (Battle of Halbe). What was left surrendered to Soviet forces on April 29, 1945.

     It isn't possible from the surviving photographs of this particular S307(f) to tell which regiment it was part of. It was struck at least three times, the penetration on the cab having cracked off a piece of the armor. Exactly where the S307(f) was knocked out or abandoned isn't known but it was likely in the initial area of operations of the 21.Pz.Dv. which was south-east of the city of Caen. Photographs taken of this S307(f) after the combat show that at least five of the mortar tubes were missing from the frame, both tracks were gone, and it even appeared the 4-cylinder engine was removed as it is certainly missing in the photographs. This suggests that it may have been abandoned and what could be salvaged from it was taken. This would mean the shell penetrations were done after, possibly by Allied tankers making sure it was truly disabled. This particular photograph was taken after World War Two ended though what year is unknown. By now, all of the mortar tubes are gone, rust has spread across the Reihenwerfer, chassis, and superstructure, and the Balkenkreuz is nearly washed away. Given the derelict state, in time, it was likely retrieved and taken to the scrap yard to be broken down if it wasn't scrapped where it stood.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Zastava M55 20mm Automatic Cannon

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     A soldier belonging to the 243rd. Territorial Defense Battalion, 241st. Territorial Defense Brigade sits in the gunner's seat of a Zastava M55 20mm automatic cannon. The photograph was taken in the winter of 2023. The M55 is a Yugoslavian (now Serbian) license built Hispano-Suiza HS.804 20mm L/70 anti-aircraft cannon mounted on a Hispano-Suiza HS.630-3 towed carriage. Originally built by the Crvena Zastava arms company (now Zastava Arms), the single-barrel M55 (some sources designate it the 20/1 mm M55) first entered service with the Yugoslav People's Army in 1955. Despite the age of the M55, it remains in production as it is robust and dependable. Slovenia provided Ukraine with 200 M55 systems, both single-barrel and triple-barrel (known in some sources as the 20/3 mm M55), in 2022.

     The M55 is chambered for the 20x110mm HS round and it has a gas operated, delayed blowback action. The M55, sans the carriage, has an empty weight of 94 pounds and with a full 60-round drum magazine, the weight increases to 151 pounds. The maximum rate of fire is between 600 to 700 rounds per minute with each round leaving the barrel at a muzzle velocity of 2,800 to 2,900 feet per second. With the muzzle brake, the recoil force is 881 pounds.

     The 20x110mm HS cartridge case was brass with more modern production ammunition using steel cases. The standard HEI (High-Explosive Incendiary) round has approximately 32 grams of propellant with between 10.75 to 11.4 grams of explosive. The effective range against aerial targets is just under 1 mile (.9 of a mile) while the maximum range of the round is 2.7 miles. Fuzes include delayed-action and impact types. The M55 shown here is not fitted with any sights but the mount for an optical sight can be seen above the magazine.

     The M55 can fire against ground targets if need be with an effective range of 1.2 miles. Today, the typical ammunition availability for the 20x110mm HS round (in addition to the HEI discussed above) includes HEI-T (High-Explosive Incendiary Tracer), HE-T (High-Explosive Tracer), and HE (High-Explosive). Armor-Piercing (AP) ammunition was made for the cannon but performance required the M55 to be at close range to be effective. The AP round could penetrate 15mm of hardened steel at a 40 degree slope at a range of 365 meters. A more effective APCR (Armor-Piercing Composite Rigid) round, using a tungsten core, was produced that allowed for around 38mm of armor penetration at 365 meters at a 30 degree slope.

     As the M55 is manually operated, the cannon is mainly in service with anti-UAV units as the slow speed of drones such as the HESA Shahed 136 (around 115 miles per hour) are more easily tracked and targeted by such weapons.

Panzerkampfwagen IV Ausf B (2. Zug, 2. Kompanie, Panzer-Regiment 4, 13. Panzer-Division)

Source: Author's collection.

     Somewhere on the Eastern Front, the abandoned remains of a Panzerkampfwagen IV Ausf B medium tank slowly sinks into the Russian mud. The photograph was one of many contained in a soldier's personal photo album entitled “Meine Dienstzeit” (“My Service Period”) though who the soldier was and who he served with was not given in the album. The tank belonged to the 2. Zug, 2. Kompanie, Panzer-Regiment 4, 13. Panzer-Division. This is denoted by the tactical number 222 on the turret with the third number two denoting it was the second tank in the platoon (Zug). That the tank was with the 13. Panzer-Division is denoted by the circle with the cross on the hull side. It is likely the soldier passed the wreck and snapped a picture of it since there was no other tank pictures in the album.

     Production of the PzKpfw IV Ausf B started in April 1938 and by September 1938, a total of 42 had been produced before it was superseded by the Ausf C model. Built by Krupp-Gruson, the PzKpfw IV Ausf B was powered by a Maybach HL120TR engine connected to a 7-speed gearbox (6 forward, 1 reverse) and was enough to provide the tank with a top road speed of 25mph. Enough fuel was carried to give a maximum operational range of 124 miles. For armament, the tank was fitted with a 7.5cm KwK 37 L/24 gun with a co-axial 7.92mm MG 34 machine-gun. Curiously, the hull mounted MG 13 machine-gun that had been fitted to the previous Ausf A model was removed and replaced with only a visor and a pistol port. 80 total rounds of ammunition was carried for the KwK 37 and was often a mixture of armor piercing (Panzergranate), high-explosive (Sprenggranate), and smoke (Nebelgranate) shells. The machine-gun was provided with 2,400 rounds of belted ammunition. The turret had a 360 degree rotation which was electrically driven (with a manual backup) while the gun had a maximum elevation of 20 degrees and a maximum gun depression of 10 degrees. For protection, the PzKpfw IV Ausf B had 30mm of armor on the turret front at a 10 degree slope, 15mm on the turret sides at a 25 degree slope, and 15mm and no sloping. The gun mantlet added another 30mm of armor to the front of the turret. The superstructure front was 30mm thick at a 7 degree slope, 15mm of armor on the sides with no sloping, and 15mm at the rear with a 10 degree slope. The hull front had 30mm of armor at a 12 degree slope, 15mm on the sides with no sloping, and 15mm thick on the rear at a 10 degree slope. The turret top armor was 10mm thick, the top of the superstructure was 12mm thick, and the underside of the hull was 5mm thick.

     When the 13. Panzer-Division, under the command of Generalleutnant Walter Düvert, went into Russia on June 22, 1941, it had twenty PzKpfw IV tanks on hand in various makes out of an authorized strength of twenty-eight. A little over a month later, a report dated August 28, 1941 listed only nine tanks left operational with another ten being completely written off. The division was under the 1. Panzerarmee, Heeresgruppe Süd and saw considerable action during the Battle of Kiev which took place from August 23, 1941 to September 26, 1941. Although it was a significant defeat for the Russians, the Germans still suffered 61,239 casualties and would account for the August report on medium tank strength for the division. Of the PzKpfw III medium tanks the division had, prior to combat, the authorized strength was seventy-one tanks of which the division had its full allotment. But after the initial battles in and around Kiev, the report listed only thirty-seven tanks operational with another ten having been written off.

     The tank seen here doesn't appear to have suffered combat damage but without being able to see the front, it is difficult to say for sure. It may have experienced a mechanical breakdown or threw a track and with the rapid advance, it may have been left behind for a later recovery. In the meantime, it appears to have been scavenged to a small degree, mainly with the spare road-wheels having been taken from their location on the fender as where they were can just be made out to the right of the 13. Panzer-Division symbol.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Mil Mi-2MSB-1 (and Mi-2AM-1)

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine.

     The oldest helicopter design currently seeing active service in the Russo-Ukrainian War is shown in this photograph released by the Main Directorate of Intelligence of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine (GUR). The design, the Mil Mi-2 (NATO reporting name Hoplite), first flew in September 1961 and after acceptance, the first examples entered Soviet service beginning in 1965. Although a Soviet design, all Mi-2 production occurred in Poland by the PZL-Świdnik company. Although manufacturing of the Mi-2 ceased in 1999, the Mi-2 remains active service with a number of countries, to include Ukraine. Specifically, the helicopter in the foreground is a Mi-2MSB-1 variant while the one in the background looks to be a Mi-2AM-1.

     The Mi-2MSB-1 is a modernization of existing Mi-2 helicopters undertaken by the Ukrainian company Motor Sich for the civilian market. The first examples of the Mi-2MSB-1 appeared in 2013. The main change is the replacement of the original pair of 400 horsepower Klimov GTD-350 turboshaft engines with two modern (and lighter) 465 horsepower AI-450M turboshaft engines. Along with the updated engines, the Mi-2MSB-1 also comes with a new gearbox, transmission, and new composite material rotor blades. Other changes include updated cockpit instrumentation for the new powerplants and a slightly redesigned fuselage to improve interior space capacity and a passenger door repositioning. Otherwise, the Mi-2MSB-1 is much the same as the original Mi-2. Motor Sich, of course, does offer optional electronic upgrades such as digital navigation systems.

     The Mi-2MSB-1 is operated by a crew of one, the pilot. If outfitted for passenger service, the Mi-2MSB-1 can accommodate up to 8 people. Internally, the Mi-2MSB-1 can carry up to 1.1 tons of cargo or if using external cargo slings, pendants, or cargo netting, the Mi-2MSB-1 has a slightly higher carry capacity of 1.2 tons. For performance, the maximum speed of the Mi-2MSB-1 (without cargo) is 130 miles per hour with a cruise speed of 124 miles per hour. The typical flight range on internal fuel capacity is 466 miles. Maximum service ceiling is 3 miles with the optimum ceiling being 1.4 miles.

     The particular Mi-2MSB-1 seen here, operated by the Defense Intelligence Aviation of  Ukraine, is outfitted for medical evacuation. The modernization and outfitting was funded by international monetary donations managed by the Olena Zelenska Foundation to the sum of $500,000USD. The helicopter is fitted with a modern Garmin navigation system while all of the medical equipment was produced by Weinmann Emergency Medical Technology GmbH. Equipment includes artificial lung ventilators, electrocardiogram (EKG) machine, cardiac event monitors, defibrillator, oxygen assist module (OAM) with pressure regulator, electric aspirator, and other medical supplies. Casualty capacity is three if they are ambulatory but only a single casualty if on a litter. The exterior pods are fuel tanks. Typical medevac time is 15 minutes to the location of the request though time can vary due to weather conditions, distance, and enemy activity.

     The Mi-2AM-1, also used for medical evacuation operations, is similarly outfitted as the Mi-2MSB-1. One of at least two Mi-2AM-1 helicopters, one was purchased through donations made by Polish citizens to the Zbroimy Ukrainę charity organization.

 

Russo-Ukrainian War: 155mm M107 Projectile with UZRGM Grenade Fuze

Source: CasualArtyFan on X™

     A casual glance through combat footage from the Russo-Ukrainian War would suggest a good portion of the skirmishes and engagements occur in and around trench lines, within patches of wooded terrain, and in relatively open plains or farm fields. But, at least in the eyes of Russian military leadership, progress is more often than not measured in what village, town, or city has been taken from the Ukrainians and occupied. As such, there is plenty of combat that occurs within the streets and ruins of houses and buildings. The latter is due to the Russian tactic of simply bombarding urban areas with artillery, rockets, drones, and aerial bombs. The U.S. Army used to call combat operations within built-up (urban) areas as MOUT (Military Operations on Urban Terrain) though today, it is usually referred to Urban Operations (UO).

     MOUT missions require specific training and awareness as urban areas present a much different set of problems for attacking troops. For one, a defending force can be fewer in number than the attacking force but the very urban terrain offers advantages to the defenders that make up for any deficit in manpower. Buildings offer concealment and ambush potential, streets running between buildings or houses constrain the movement of vehicles, rubble can provide hiding places for mines or IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices), taller buildings may offer protection from vehicle armament that may not have the elevation to reach higher positions, basements can hide troops in addition to making it risky for vehicles to crash through houses lest they fall into the basement and become immobile, more built-up urban areas could have underground infrastructure (sewer lines or even subway tunnels) which allow the defender to shift forces unseen, and there is the risk that within the urban combat zone, civilians may remain.

     That said, it is clear that urban combat is a significant challenge to undertake and be successful at it without suffering sizable casualties. Given Russian bombardment tactics, the Ukrainian Army often will not hold a village or town if there is no strategic or tactical reason for doing so. Instead, the Ukrainian Army often makes use of surveillance drones to reconnoiter a captured village or town, looking for Russian positions. If found, FPV drones may be sent in to take out as many of the Russian soldiers as possible. Likewise, if Ukrainian troops conduct a counterattack or raid against Russian positions, aerial drone reconnaissance is key in allowing the Ukrainians to formulate the best avenues of attack to minimize casualties. Sometimes, Russian resistance can be stubborn within a building or residence. If able, Ukrainian troops will attempt to convince the Russians to surrender rather than have to storm into a building or basement. This is surely to lead to injuries or death as there are only so many ways into a building or basement. If the Russians refuse to come out, then Ukrainian troops will utilize grenades and other explosives to finish off the Russian soldier(s) rather than go in and get them. 

     Perhaps the ultimate means to deal with Russians that refuse to surrender is shown here. The shell is a 155mm M107 High-Explosive projectile. The 95 pound M107 is a very old munition, having entered service in 1958. Yet, it remains in production and in use today as a training round as it is relatively inexpensive to produce. This particular M107 has 14.6 pounds of TNT in the main body. Other M107 shells use 15.4 pounds of Composition B (Comp-B) explosive. Such M107 rounds would have COMP “B” stenciled on the shell. This particular shell also has a .3 pound TNT supplementary explosive charge near the nose. This is designated by the stencil that reads “ W / SUPPL CHG”. Instead of the normal fuze (of which there are many with the most common being the M728), there is a UZRGM fuze from a F-1 hand grenade situated in the nose. UZRGM stands for Universal'nyi Zapal, Ruchnaya Granata, Modernizirovannyi (Universal Igniter, Hand Grenade, Modernized) and it, along with the F-1, have been in production since 1939. Ukraine currently produces a variant of the F-1 grenade which entered service in late 2024. The fuze has a delay between 3.2 to 4.2 seconds. The M107 has a lethal radius of 150 meters and out to 250 meters, injury is possible thanks to the approximately 1,950 fragments that are created upon detonation.

     Given the UZRGM's quite short delay coupled with the sizable blast radius of the M107, it makes one wonder exactly how this “grenade” would be employed. A long string perhaps? It would be assumed the UZRGM's fuze would detonate the supplementary charge which in turn would set off the rest of the shell. While the Ukrainian Army does have heavy drones that can (and do) drop 122mm and 155mm artillery shells, they do not utilize grenade fuzes. Also, Ukrainian troops do use hand thrown 120mm mortar bombs for clearing houses and even TM-62 anti-tank mines as satchel charges. Neither are large caliber artillery shells.

     Of course, this could very well be some Ukrainian artillerymen having a bit of fun and making a completely rubbish contraption to get some laughs from the social media world. In fact, when one considers the practicality of this improved explosive, it is a solid 99.9% chance this is a joke which has made a bunch of us discuss it to no end in the halls of Reddit and Facebook.

Kradmelder (Regimentsstab, Artillerie-Regiment 110)

Source: Flickr

     Somewhere on the Eastern Front, a kradmelder (dispatch rider) for the regimental headquarters (Regimentsstab) of Artillerie-Regiment 110 prepares to get under way. Of all the belligerents during World War Two, the German military was the largest user of both motorcycles as well as dispatch riders. These men played a critical role in delivering urgent orders and messages between headquarters and units out in the field. Often, this was because wire communications between units and their headquarters was either not yet in place, the distance too far to establish such communication, time was not available to set up wire lines, or the wire lines run had been broken, sabotaged, or in some way destroyed thus severing such communication channels. Typically, dispatches were sent back and forth by foot when moving messages between züge (platoons) and kompanie (companies) but when communicating to bataillone (battalions) and higher units, the kradmelder was utilized. Obviously, the job of a kradmelder, or any dispatch rider regardless of nation, was a dangerous one as they often operated alone. Even moving behind friendly lines, front depending, was no guarantee of safety. Each kradmelder was trained to maintain his motorcycle and spare parts were often carried so that any common mechanical failure could be corrected in the field.

     The Germans issued the kradmelder, and other users of motorcycles, a unique piece of protective clothing which was called the Schutzmantel für Kraft Radfaher which translates as Protective Coat for Motorcyclists. The double-breasted coat was rubberized so that it was waterproof and it also fit loosely. The coat also featured a wool faced collar, split tail, and four large pockets (two on the front, one on each side) with button-closure flaps. Each tail could be gathered around the rider's leg and buttoned into place. This made for a more snug fit and thus made the coat less awkward to wear when sitting on the motorcycle and also lessened the chances the coat material might catch on objects, to include the motorcycle's own rear tire. The coat was standard for both enlisted men as well as officers who operated motorcycles. The rider in the photograph has wrapped the coats' tails around his legs and the bottom of one of the front pockets can just be seen beneath his arm. The clear shield he is using to protect his face is not often seen in photographs with the usual protective equipment being a pair of goggles and conditions depending, a scarf or piece of cloth to cover the mouth and nose. In cold weather, some kradmelder used their gas masks, without the filter, to protect their face from the frigid temperatures. Other equipment visible includes the cylindrical gasmaskenbüche (gas mask case) and the square, rubberized pouch for the gaskap (gas cape). Strapped to his back is a Mauser 7.92mm k98 bolt-action rifle.

     The motorcycle he is riding is a DKW (DampfKraftWagen) NZ 350. By the time this photograph was taken, DKW was building the NZ 350 exclusively for the Wehrmacht. The motorcycle was powered by a 1-cylinder, 2-stroke, air-cooled 346cc engine which developed approximately 12hp. This was paired with a 4-speed transmission. Top speed of the NZ 350 was 65mph. Fuel capacity came from a 3.6 gallon fuel tank with the engine consuming, under normal operating conditions, almost one gallon of gasoline every 62 miles. Of interest, however, is that the license plate affixed to the top of the front fender is not military but a civilian plate. This is because all Wehrmacht military plates started with WH (Wehrmacht Heer for the Army), WL (Wehrmacht Luftwaffe for the Air Force), WM (Wehrmacht Kriegsmarine for the Navy), or SS for Waffen-SS license plates. The “M” on the plate is the Roman numeral that corresponded to a German city or district in which the motorcycle had been registered. The circular red object is the registration proof of issue by the local police. The upper portion read “Der Polizeiprälident” (Chief of Police) and below it would be the city name. It was not uncommon that civilian owned motorcycles were impressed into German military service given that demand for them was high.

     Finally, when this photograph was taken, the regimental headquarters staff for Artillerie-Regiment 110 had been attached to the I. Armeekorps (1st. Army Corps), 18. Armee (18th. Army) which was a part of Heeresgruppe Nord (Army Group North) during the invasion of Russia that commenced on June 22, 1941 with the launch of Unternehmen Barbarossa or Operation Barbarossa. By October 1941, it was subordinated to L. Armeekorps on several occasions. By the close of 1944, the unit was the 17. Armee and by the spring of 1945, it was under 1. Panzerarmee, LIX. Armeekorps in Silesia. As for the remainder of the unit, I.Abteilung (which encompassed three batteries) was assigned to Artillerie-Regiment 74 in 1939 and III.Abteilung (also three batteries) joined Artillerie-Regiment 74 on July 29, 1940. Artillerie-Regiment 110 was designated a heavy artillery regiment which meant it was equipped with 150mm or 170mm caliber guns.

Brewster Buffalo Mk. I, No. 453 Squadron RAAF

Source: SDASM Archives

     The Brewster Buffalo's history which started in 1937 when the prototype first flew to when the last Buffalo in Finnish service was stood down in 1948 is filled with praise as well as criticism. The Brewster XF2A-1 prototype first flew on December 2, 1937 and on December 8, 1939, VF-3 operating on the USS Saratoga received 10 F2A-1 fighters and in so doing, became the U.S. Navy's first monoplane fighter to enter service. The F2A-1 and later F2A-2 models were generally liked by naval aviators who while not finding the plane fast, liked its turn and roll ability thanks to its low wing loading. However, it was soon becoming clear the F2A's brief time in service was coming to an end as the design was eclipsed. This was even more clear when the F2A-3 model appeared which had additional fuel tankage, armor for the pilot, and larger ammunition capacity for the four 12.7mm M2 Browning machine-guns. This added weight ruined the handling characteristics of the previous models and reduced the speed and climb rate. The inability of the F2A airframe to take a larger engine made it impossible to compensate for the added weight. By December 1940, the F2A made way for the Grumman F4F Wildcat and numerous F2A aircraft were handed over to U.S. Marine Corps to equip several squadrons, the most notable being VMF-221 (the “Fighting Falcons”) who flew the F2A-3 during the Battle of Midway. Other U.S. Navy F2A aircraft were relegated to training units.

     The British got involved with the Brewster Buffalo when a batch of 32 Brewster B-339 (the export designation for de-navalized F2A-2) aircraft that had been allocated to ship to Belgium instead were diverted to England following the fall of Belgium to the Germans. The British found the B-339 wanting. Evaluation reports listed poor speed, weak armament, inferior high altitude performance, lack of pilot protection, engine faults, maintenance difficulty, and poor cockpit controls layout as flaws. At the same time, the reports praised the handling, cockpit size, and the visibility afforded the pilot. Nevertheless, the B-339 was deemed unfit for combat in the Western Theater but the desperate need for any combat capable aircraft to outfit British and British Commonwealth squadrons in the Pacific and Asian Theaters saw the British order 170 Brewster B-339E aircraft as the Brewster Buffalo Mk.I. These  aircraft were modified by adding armor, installing the British Mk.III reflector gun sight, adding a gun camera, and many other modifications. The result, much like the issues with the F2A-3, saw performance suffer from the added weight. Buffalo Mk.I planes were issued to two Royal Air Force (RAF) and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadrons along with one Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) squadron. The photograph depicts one of these Buffalo Mk.I planes.

     Buffalo Mk.I W8202 was issued to No. 453 Squadron RAAF which was raised on May 23, 1941 and deployed to Singapore in August of that same year where it operated from RAF Sembawang. Once the crated aircraft were reassembled, issues soon arose. The addition of the armor plating disturbed the center of gravity which affected handling, especially in dives. The heat in the area of operations limited the Buffalo's ceiling and was a cause of oil seal failure in the engine which had the consequence of spraying oil across the canopy, blocking the pilot's view. Another constant headache was the inability of the M2 Browning weapons to fire due to issues with the solenoid firing mechanism. In some cases, the wing mounted guns were replaced with Browning .303 Mk. II weapons in order to at least attain some reliability. In service, some of the additions to the Buffalo were removed, to include the armor, bullet resistant canopy glass, gun camera, and anything else deemed unnecessary so as to lighten the aircraft. In addition, it was not uncommon for sorties to be conducted on half the petrol to further reduce the fighting weight. The problems were compounded by poor construction of the Buffaloes, lack of spare parts, and poorly trained maintenance personnel. Despite the many problems, some of the pilots appreciated the robustness of the Buffalo and its ability to withstand damage. 

     Returning to W8202, it was assigned to Pilot Officer F. Leigh “Curly” Bowes of A Flight, No. 453 Squadron. On August 27, 1941, Bowes took his Buffalo up on a flight for the first time. Unfortunately, upon returning to RAF Sembawang, he forgot to lower the landing gear and made a belly landing. Thankfully, W8202 wasn't severely damaged and it was sent to RAF Seletar in Singapore to be repaired and returned to service. Bowes suffered no injuries outside of, perhaps, a bruised ego. The Buffalo was able to compare favorably to the Nakajima Ki-27 fighter (codenamed “Nate”) but soon, the Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (“Peregrine Falcon”; codenamed “Oscar”) appeared which outclassed the Buffalo. No. 453 Squadron drew its first blood on December 13, 1941 in the skies over Malaya when it tangled with Kawasaki Ki-48 light bombers (codenamed “Lily”) from the 75th. Sentai and Mitsubishi Ki-51 dive bombers (codenamed “Sonia”) from the 71st. Chutai along with escorting Ki-27 fighters. In the melee, two Ki-48s, one Ki-27, and three Ki-51s were downed with one Ki-48 being probable but at the cost of two Buffalo pilots. The unit had its largest aerial battle on December 22, 1941 when fourteen Buffaloes tangled with eighteen Ki-43 fighters from the 64th. Sentai. The Buffaloes claimed one Ki-43 confirmed and two Ki-43s as probable but at a loss of five Buffaloes with three pilots being killed. By now, the unit only had three functional Buffaloes and so the squadron was merged with No. 21 Squadron RAAF which was equally as depleted in terms of aircraft. No.21 Squadron RAAF had been formed on April 21, 1936 and had been deployed to Singapore in August 1940. Originally operating from RAF Seletar, it moved to RAF Sembawang where it fought alongside No. 453 Squadron. With the new unit, 21RAAF/453 Squadron, W8202 was now the mount of Sgt. Grant T. Harrison. Harrison was with No. 21 Squadron RAAF from the start. The end for W8202 came on January 12, 1942. 21RAAF/453 Squadron has been scrambled to strike Kuantan but thick cloud cover over the target area forced the unit to return. On the return flight, in heavy turbulence, a Buffalo flown by Flight Officer R.H. “Dainty” Wallace collided with Harrison flying W8202, shearing off the canopy and bending the propeller. With no power, Harrison was able to glide into a crash landing among trees near the Mersing River. Uninjured, Harrison made for the coast and after six days, was found by an Australian Army patrol. W8202 was never recovered.

     Harrison would not score any kills while flying the Buffalo though Bowes was credited with a probable kill of a Ki-48 on January 15, 1942. As for W8202, the wreck was discovered in 1962 and was in a relatively good state with each gun still loaded with 400 rounds of ammunition, the hydraulic system still had pressure, and the pilot oxygen bottle was still full. No. 390 Maintenance Unit of the RAF that was based at RAF Seletar, went to the wreck and removed the guns and ammunition. To this day, the wreck remains where it had crashed and the exact location has been kept secret to prevent the wreck from being looted. Other users of the Buffalo included the Netherlands and as already noted, the Finnish. It was in the hands of the Finnish that the Brewster really shined. Nicknamed, among others, the “Lentävä Kaljapullo” (“Flying Beer Bottle”), Finnish pilots flying the B-239E (the export designation of the de-navalised F2A-1) racked up impressive scores against all types of Soviet aircraft. One unit, Lentolaivue 24, shot down 477 Soviet aircraft between 1941 and 1945 while only losing 19 B-239E aircraft, a kill ratio of 26 to 1. This was even in the face of improved Soviet fighters and more experienced pilots. The last B-239E fighters, five in all, were stood down on September 14, 1948 and put into storage. Sadly, all five were scrapped in 1953.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The AirTronic PSRL-1 with OGi-7MA HE-FRAG Grenade

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     A soldier of the 4th. Assault Battalion, 92nd. Assault Brigade “Ivan Sirko” on the firing range with a PSRL-1 (Precision Shoulder-fired Rocket Launcher). The profile of the Soviet RPG-7 is clear to see and in fact, the PSRL-1 is a direct (and unlicensed) modification of the RPG-7 developed and made in the United States by the AirTronic USA company. The PSRL-1 originally appeared in 2009 under the designation RPG-7USA and the first customer was Peru that obtained the weapon for the country's special forces in 2013. This was followed by the Philippine Armed Forces the following year. The Ukrainian Army became a purchaser in 2017, a year after the RPG-7USA was redesignated as the PSRL-1. The PSRL-1 is mainly targeted to the export market, specifically allied countries to the United States looking to upgrade from the RPG-7.

     The PSRL-1 has the same weight, 14 pounds, of the RPG-7 but is a fraction shorter at 3 feet (compared to 3.1 feet of the RPG-7). Construction uses a combination of 4140 and 4150 ordnance grade steel. Both are chromium-molybdenum steel alloys with the barrel being 4150 steel as it has a higher heat resistance, is wear resistant, has a high tensile strength, and has a higher carbon content. The other components use 4140 steel mainly due to its cost-effectiveness in CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining of the parts. The rear of the barrel retains the wrap to protect the firer's shoulder from the heat. Another difference is a more conventional pistol grip on the PSRL-1 rather than the completely vertical grip of the RPG-7. Like the RPG-7, the PSRL-1 has a danger zone at the rear of the weapon of between 15 to 20 meters and this is created by the back blast when a rocket is launched.

     The most notable difference from the RPG-7 is the abundance of Picatinny rails for mounting various optics and other accessories. The PSRL-1 ships with two standard sights. The first is a AirTronic PSRL 3.5x24mm optical sight which is superior to the RPG-7's standard 2.7x13mm PGO-7 sight. The second standard sight is shown in use here, the flip-up BUIS (Backup Iron Sights). As an optional accessory, AirTronic USA offers a EOTech 552 holographic weapon sight which has a 65 MOA (Minute of Angle) ring with a 1 MOA dot. The EOTech 552 can be used with 3rd. and 4th. generation night vision via a toggle switch that turns the sight into infrared brightness levels that can be picked up by night vision goggles.

     The PSRL-1 boasts a longer range than the RPG-7 but only if using the 93mm SR-H1 HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) rocket designed specifically for the PSRL-1. Capable of penetrating 500mm of rolled homogeneous armor (RHA), the SR-H1 can achieve that at an effective range of 500 meters to a maximum range of 800 meters. By comparison, the 93mm PG-7VL HEAT rocket used by the RPG-7 can also defeat 500mm of RHA but only at 250 meters.

     Of course, what makes the PSRL-1 attractive to export customers looking to update from the RPG-7 is that the PSRL-1 can use any rocket designed for the RPG-7 and that is the case here. The rocket the soldier is using is the Bulgarian produced 40mm OGi-7MA High-Explosive Fragmentation (HE-FRAG) rocket which is used against infantry, soft-skin vehicles, lightly armored vehicles, and hasty field fortifications. The OGi-7MA can be identified by the orange nose cap. The direct fire range is 180 meters but the rocket can go as far as 1,000 meters before the solid fuel is expended. The OGi-7 warhead contains over 1,250 fragments with a lethal radius of over 22 meters. The rocket is equipped with a CP-71 propellant charge and is normally fitted with a AF72 impact fuze. The AF72 ensures that any hit, even a glancing strike (that would normally ricochet), will detonate the warhead. If need be, the rocket can also use the AF76 fuze.

     Besides the countries mentioned above, Turkey became a customer in 2022 when the PSRL-1 was purchased to equip units within the Turkish Navy special forces. As a note, Turkish Land Forces utilize the RPG-7 with the Turkish company MKEK producing various rockets for the weapon. These, of course, can also be used with the PSRL-1.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The PG-7VT Tandem-Charge HEAT Grenade

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     A previous posting discussed the ubiquitous RPG-7 to include how it works and one of the numerous rockets that it can use, the 70mm PUI-7 practice rocket. To view that post, point your browser here:

https://photosofmilitaryhistory.blogspot.com/2025/07/russo-ukrainian-war-rpg-7.html

     The rocket shown here, in the hands of a soldier of the 43rd. Mechanized Brigade, is the most lethal to any tank on the battlefields of the Russo-Ukrainian War. The Bulgarian produced 93mm PG-7VT is a very long rocket as clearly evidenced here, having a total length of 3.7 feet long with a weight of 7 pounds. The cause of the rocket's length it what gives it its lethality: a tandem-charge warhead.

     At the very front of the rocket is a smaller, 40mm HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) warhead. Within this small warhead is a OKFOL explosive shaped charge with a piezoelectric crystal equipped VP-22 fuze. This type of fuze is often used with HEAT munitions due to its robustness and simplicity. When the warhead strikes the target, the crystal undergoes mechanical stress which in turn causes crystal deformity which then releases an electric charge. This discharge then triggers the detonator on the explosive charge.

     In the case of the PG-7VT, the small warhead will strike explosive reactive armor (ERA) which is commonly found on Soviet-era and Russian tanks. Examples include Kontakt-1, Kontakt-5, and Relikt. All three types of ERA can be seen on Russian and Ukrainian tanks and in the case of Western tanks being utilized by the Ukrainian Army, many have been fitted with Kontakt-1 (the most common) and Kontakt-5 blocks. Upon hitting a ERA block, the warhead's impact will cause the explosive within the block to detonate, creating a blast traveling outwards, away from the tank. With HEAT munitions, the outward pressure wave of the block's detonation deforms the plasma jet formed by the shaped charge to the point that the tank's armor itself will not be penetrated by the warhead.

     Except, in the case of the PG-7VT, there is a 93mm HEAT warhead coming right behind the small one. With the ERA cleared away by the first charge, the larger OKFOL filled warhead can detonate against the tank's actual armor. The second charge also uses the same fuze type as the first but adds IIF (Impact, Inertia, Fired). IIF combines impact and inertial resistance to trigger the warhead and this feature is a safety measure from accidental detonation. Capable of penetrating a minimum of 500mm of rolled homogeneous armor (RHA), the PG-7VT can defeat just about every tank it would meet on the Russo-Ukrainian War's combat zones. About the only tanks that could survive, from a frontal hit, is the M1A1 Abrams and FV4034 Challenger II which the Ukrainian Army fields. The Russian Army's latest tank, the T-14 Armata, is also capable of shrugging off the PG-7VT but to date, not a single T-14 has ever been deployed to Ukraine. If the PG-7VT is fired at a tank without ERA or hits a location not protected by ERA, the penetration is no less than 500mm of RHA.

     It should be noted that this tank killing capability comes at a cost. The maximum effective range of the PG-7VT is a minuscule 300 meters with the optimal range being no more than 220 meters. In open terrain (which a good bit of Ukraine's battlefields are), effecting a hit against enemy armor means getting suicidally close. If firing from a trench in the defense, it means letting enemy armor get uncomfortably close. However, if the combat is in built up urban areas (such as in villages, towns, or small cities), the opportunity to get close enough to enemy tanks without being spotted are far higher and effecting escape after firing (as the backblast will betray the firer's location) is also higher. This is one reason tank troops do not like entering urban areas without infantry support.

     The PG-7VT can also be used against targets other than tanks. If firing at a building composed of bricks or construction masonry, the rocket can drill through around 65 inches of block. If used against reinforced concrete, penetration drops to 49 inches. If used against improvised trench works consisting of logs, sandbags, and dirt fortifications, the PG-7VT can make short work of such defenses with a penetration of 10 feet.

Remnants of War: Stridsvagn 74 (Range Target)

Source: Michael Westlund

     The remains of a Swedish Stridsvagn 74 (Strv 74) alongside a gravel road on the Kosta Firing Range located within a Swedish military reservation. 

     The Strv 74 was, in a sense, a legacy tank as well as an attempt to modernize and compete with post-WW2 tank developments. The chassis of the Strv 74 was more or less a rebuilt version of the Stridsvagn m/42 chassis, a tank developed in 1941 and remained in service with the Swedish army (after acceptance) from 1943 to 1945. The turret, however, was new and featured a potent high-velocity 75mm gun paired with a fire-control system. At the same time as the Strv 74 was being developed, Sweden purchased 80 British Centurion Mk. 3 and 160 Centurion Mk.5 tanks in the 1950s, putting them in service as the Stridsvagn 81. Later, in 1958, the Swedish added another 110 Centurion Mk.10 tanks to their armored force as the Stridsvagn 101. Thus, the Strv 74 was seen only as an indigenously produced tank to supplement the purchased Centurion tanks rather than be the de-facto tank used by the Swedish. In all, 225 Strv 74 tanks were built, entering service in 1958 and being retired in 1984. Some Strv 74 turrets were used as static gun emplacements, the last of which were torn down in the early 2000s. 

     Even the casual observer would note the large profile of the turret in comparison to the chassis and Strv 74 crews nicknamed the tank "Sanslös" (meaning “Senseless”) as the tank would violently shake and rock if the gun was fired with the turret in the 3 o’clock or 9 o’clock position. 

     The upside down sign leaning against the hull reads “Spärrat Område: Blindgångare LIVSFARA!” which translates (more or less) as “Restricted Area: Unexploded Ordnance DANGER!”

Russo-Ukrainian War: The RPG-7

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     Of all the anti-tank weapons currently in use in the world, only one can claim to be the most widely deployed. That weapon is the RPG-7. Standing for Ruchnoy Protivotankovy Granatomyot, meaning Hand-Held Antitank Grenade Launcher, the RPG-7 can be found in the arsenals of some 40 countries and in the hands of irregular forces, militants, and private military contractors (PMCs). It is believed well over 9 million RPG-7 weapons (of all types and variants) have been built. None of the successors to the RPG-7 have come close to its production numbers and so on military arms markets, there are plenty of RPG-7 models to be had as well as large stockpiles of rocket ammunition. As such, for countries aiding Ukraine militarily, supplying the RPG-7 and ammunition is inexpensive and requires little training by Ukrainian soldiers as many of them are already familiar with the weapon. The RPG-7 is the successor to the RPG-2, the latter first entering service in 1954 and the RPG-7 appearing in the hands of Soviet soldiers starting in 1961.

     The RPG-7 shown here in the hands of a soldier belonging to the 25th. Airborne Brigade “Sicheslav” has a weight of 14 pounds (unloaded) and a length of 3.1 feet without the rocket. The RPG-7 is primarily made of steel while the back portion of the launcher has wooden furniture added to protect the firer's shoulder from the heat generated in the launch tube by the rocket upon firing. Typically, the RPG-7 is equipped with a PGO-7 optical sight (with 2.7x magnification) but here, the soldier is using only the iron sights. Using the iron sights, which have no adjustment for wind or target lead, means the effective range is limited to between 200 meters to at most 500 meters.

     The RPG-7 is not a single-shot weapon and can be reloaded. While some early anti-tank weapons were electrically fired (using batteries as the power source), the RPG-7 uses a primer system. This eliminates the need for batteries and thus there is no risk of running out of power, rendering the weapon useless. As such, directly behind the front grip/trigger assembly is a single-action hammer which, when the firer pulls the trigger, releases the hammer to strike upwards onto the firing pin which then sets off the primer contained in the rocket.

     Speaking of rockets, the one seen in use here is a 70mm PUI-7 practice rocket which provides a much reduced training cost in comparison to using combat munitions. The PUI-7 has no warhead and it also does not have the rocket motor and so the nozzles, seen forward of the front sight, are closed off. It does, however, have the booster charge attached to the rear of the rocket. It is this charge that propels the rocket out of the launch tube. In a combat munition, once the rocket reaches around 5 meters distance from the launcher, the rocket motor would take over and propel the warhead towards the target and, in some cases, impart stabilizing spin while in flight. The latter occurs if the rocket doesn't utilize pop-out stabilizing fins.

     Within the PUI-7's booster charge is a 7.62x39mm tracer rifle cartridge and primer and the PUI-7 also comes with a safety cap on the tip of the warhead. On a combat RPG-7 rocket, this cap protects the impact fuze from accidental detonation. With the PUI-7 rocket, the cap is still used despite having no fuze in order to train the operator in proper procedures for readying the rocket for use. The firing process is exactly the same as with any other rocket and upon pulling the trigger, the firing pin strikes the primer and launches the PUI-7 down range. The tracer element assists in watching the flight of the rocket and the maximum range is 400 meters.