Russo-Ukrainian War: The Swarmly Poseidon H10 Mk.III Reece Drone

Source: The National Review

     A Ukrainian police officer of the Rifle Battalion of the National Police Zaporizhzhia prepares a Poseidon H10 Mk.III reconnaissance drone for a mission on May 23, 2025. FPV drones get much of the limelight when it comes to videos circulated on social media. However, those videos that show a overhead view of a FPV drone hitting a target come from a reconnaissance drone loitering over the target area. Reconnaissance drones from both sides are a constant presence in the airspace over Ukraine. It is very difficult to move by daylight and not get spotted by a reece drone. Even darkness is no guaranty due to drones using thermal or infrared optics. Once a reconnaissance drone spots a target, it is evaluated and if found to be the enemy, then the coordinates are relayed to artillery, rocket, or FPV drone assets to take the target under fire and eliminate it.

     The Poseidon is designed and built by the Cyprus based company Swarmly, Ltd. and in May 2022, the Ukrainian Ministry of Defense issued a contract to Swarmly for the purchase of a undisclosed number of Poseidon H10 Mk.III drones for evaluation. In time, the Poseidon was ultimately accepted for service in the Ukrainian military. Pilot training for the Poseidon is conducted at the 190th. Training Center. Of interest is this particular drone's camouflage which consists of black spray painted Ukrainian tryzuby (tridents) using a stencil while the upper surface looks to be a green hue to make it blend into the ground if viewed from overhead.

     The Poseidon is a twin-boom design with a high-mounted wing and a twin-fin vertical stabilizer arrangement with a connecting horizontal stabilizer. The total length of the drone is 6.2 feet while the wingspan is 11.5 feet. The Poseidon is a VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) with each boom containing two, 2-bladed propellers that provide vertical flight as well as the ability to hover and maneuver. Mounted in the rear of the central fuselage is a pusher, 2-bladed propeller which provides forward flight (called a cruise propeller in company literature). All five propellers are driven by electrically powered motors which makes the Poseidon quiet in flight and presents a minimal thermal signature. The top speed is 93 miles per hour.

     A valuable capability of the Poseidon is its maximum operating altitude of 3 miles. This puts it out of range of infantry small arms such as the AK-74 and machine-guns such as the 12.7mm NSV and Kord weapons. Even the 14.5mm KPV heavy machine-gun cannot reach the Poseidon if it is flying over 2.5 miles in altitude. The Poseidon at altitude is even outside the effective range of the commonly used ZU-23's 23mm autocannons. The maximum operational range of the Poseidon is 93 miles with a maximum endurance of 2.5 hours.

     Onboard equipment includes a gimbal-mounted daytime camera that provides a 20x synthetic zoom capability. This is not optical zooming and instead, the image or video has its resolution increased via software processes then the resulting image or video is cropped to the original frame size, thus artificially giving the appearance of being zoomed in. A benefit of this is the quality enhancement of the video or images. For low-light or night operation, the Poseidon has a thermal imaging camera with 4x optical zoom.

     The electronics within the Poseidon are hardened to make them resistant to Russian electronic countermeasures such as frequency jamming. Also, onboard flight software allows the Poseidon to automatically avoid threats without operator intervention and if command/control signal is lost, the Poseidon will automatically return to its launch point.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Dart Loitering Munition

Source: zelenskyy_official on Instagram

     A member of one of the two FPV groups within the 3rd. Special Forces Regiment prepares to launch a Dart loitering munition. The Dart is a Ukrainian design which first appeared in large numbers beginning in 2024. It is relatively inexpensive to build, having a production cost of around $1,000USD per unit. The Dart is being deployed by other units, to include the 92nd. Assault Brigade “Ivan Sirko”, the 93rd. Mechanized Brigade “Kholodnyi Yar”, and the 109th. Mountain Assault Battalion (element of the 10th. Mountain Assault Brigade “Edelweiss”) among others. A portion of the acquisition costs for the Dart is coming from private sources, received to the Serhiy Prytula Charity Foundation who then purchases the drones for distribution to units.

     Specifics on the Dart are a bit difficult to come by, let alone the name of the Ukrainian company that developed and currently produces the Dart. Power comes from a nose-mounted electric motor that drives a two-bladed propeller. The top speed is reported to be 99 miles per hour. The Dart has a length of 4.9 feet with a wingspan of 6.2 feet. The inexpensive camera for the visuals is fitted into the left wing.

     For range, the Dart is said to be able to achieve a maximum of 31 miles with its onboard battery charge. However, to attain this maximum, the Dart must be within the influence of a signal repeater (also called a relay). This repeater, which can be ground-based or fitted within a drone, is used to boost the strength of the command/control signals coming from the operator's controller and relaying them to the drone. Likewise, the repeater does the same thing with signals coming from the drone back to the controller. The effect is increasing the range of the signal, thereby increasing the range of the drone assuming it has the endurance capability to make use of the added range. The Dart is equipped with ECM (Electronic Counter Measures) to make its electronics resistant to jamming.

     For payload, the Dart can carry an explosive charge with a weight between 6 to 8 pounds. This charge is carried externally, beneath the fuselage, and secured using zip-ties. To get airborne, the Dart can be hand-launched or it can be flung into the air using a lightweight catapult.

     For defenses, the Dart is equipped with ECM (Electronic Counter Measures) to make its electronics resistant to jamming. The Dart is also capable of being struck by small arms fire and assuming nothing critical is hit, the Dart can be punctured and maintain airworthiness.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The AeroVironment Inc. Switchblade 600 Loitering Munition

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     A soldier of the 14th. UAV Regiment carrying a AeroVironment Inc. Switchblade 600 loitering munition within its launch container. As part of the United States' military aid to Ukraine early in the Russo-Ukrainian War, one hundred AeroVironment Switchblade 300 were sent starting in April 2022 and starting in April 2023, ten Switchblade 600 drones were confirmed as delivered. Another three hundred Switchblades have been delivered to date though what models they are remains unknown. As this photograph was taken sometime in 2025, it is clear some Switchblade 600 munitions remain in service. In late 2020, AeroVironment unveiled to the public the Switchblade 600 and it is the larger brother of the Switchblade 300. The Switchblade series is utilized both as an anti-personnel munition as well as anti-armor. 

     The Switchblade 600 munition itself is 4.3 feet long and has a weight of 33 pounds. Power comes from an electric motor that drives a rear-mounted, 2-bladed propeller. Enough charge is carried to provide the Switchblade 600 with a maximum endurance of 40 minutes which translates to a maximum range of 50 miles. Operational altitude is usually around 500 feet in altitude. Due to the electric motor, the Switchblade 600 is very quiet. The typical mission profile is to travel to a target area some 25 miles from the operator which consumes half of the battery power. This allows the Switchblade 600 to loiter over the area for another twenty minutes. Should a target make itself known, the operator directs the Switchblade 600 to it, the drone having dash speed of 115 miles per hour during the final attack run. The Switchblade 600 uses a warhead derived from the FGM-148F Javelin in that it is a multi-purpose so as to permit engagement of hard or soft targets. The warhead is HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) designed for anti-armor but it is sheathed in a steel case which produces fragmentation that is lethal to soft targets such as exposed personnel.

     The launch tube, when man-packed, can be set up on the ground or it can be mounted on ground vehicles and even on aircraft (such as helicopters). The Switchblade 600 is controlled using a touch-screen tablet-style fire control system (FCS) and a long-range antenna. Video is fed to the FCS via a gimble-mounted Electro-Optical/Infra-Red (EO/IR) sensor suite in the nose of the drone. The operator can use “tap-to-target” guidance while manually operating the drone or the Switchblade 600 can be set to operate autonomously. The Switchblade 600 utilizes a “wave-off” capability which can be triggered by the operator if he or she observes friendly forces or non-combatants in the target area. This terminates the initial mission profile and allows the operator to either resume the original mission parameters or the operator can decide to engage other targets.

     In order to reduce or eliminate electronic interference, the Switchblade 600 uses a AES-256 (Advanced Encryption Standard w/ 256-bit key) symmetric encryption algorithm to secure communication channels and maintain signal integrity. Also, the Switchblade 600 is equipped with a GPS (Global Positioning System) that makes use of a SAASM (Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module). The SAASM decrypts encrypted positioning data sent to the drone's GPS, protecting the information from injections of false data by enemy actors.

     The Switchblade 600 has the ability to use a digital data link (DDL) that can extend the engagement range out to 56 miles. Typically, to use the DDL effectively, a second long-range antenna would need to be integrated into the system. This involves the second antenna being with another operator who is further forward in the field. As the Switchblade 600 approaches the second operator, control of the drone is handed off via the DDL from the original operator to the second operator who then assumes the conduct of the mission.

     All told, the entire Switchblade 600 system (munition, launch tube, tablet, and one antenna) has a field weight of 50 pounds. Set-up time from the halt until launch readiness is 10 minutes with a trained crew.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Gerbera Drone

Source: Reddit

     The purpose of a decoy, first and foremost, is to deceive. The more life-like the decoy is and assuming proper deployment and employment, it has the chance to trick the enemy into believing something that is not true. Interestingly, in military parlance, a “dummy” refers to a decoy that mimics a piece of weaponry or equipment that is in use on the battlefield. Nevertheless, the term decoy is used broadly regardless if the decoy in question is a dummy or not. The Ukrainian Army makes heavy use of decoys, notably of 155mm M777 howitzers, NASAMS surface-to-air missile systems, M142 HIMARS vehicles, and other high value military weapons. This is to preserve, as long as possible, the equipment they have from losses.

     The Russian Federation forces also make use of decoys though not to the extent the Ukrainians do. In fact, many of the photographed front line decoys put together by Russian units are not too convincing. However, the Russians are using far more realistic decoys of S-300 (NATO reporting name SA-10 Grumble) and S-400 (SA-21 Growler) long-range surface-to-air missile systems. For example, the Russian company BalticAir offers an inflatable S-400 for $22,235...a steal in comparison to the cost of the genuine article. These decoys are being deployed in the Far East to replace actual S-300 or S-400 units which have been diverted to Ukraine and they are also seen in Crimea. However, in some instances, these decoys are easily spotted as they are placed without the accompanying vehicles associated with these missile batteries, to include separate radar, tow, and/or command post vehicles.

     Unfortunately, there is one Russian decoy that is quite difficult to differentiate from the real thing and that is shown here in the form of a downed Gerbera drone. The Gerbera (sometimes known as the Gerber) mimics the general shape of the Iranian HESA Shahed 136 loitering munition which Russia has purchased from Iran as well as the Russian license-built version, the Geran-2. Both the Shahed 136 and the Geran-2 make up the majority of the weapons deployed in Russian drone strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure as well as civilian targets. The Gerbera is reported to have first appeared in service starting in late July 2024.

     When Russia launches an air attack against Ukrainian targets, mixed into the Geran-2 and Shahed 136 munitions are Gerbera drones. Their purpose is to draw Ukrainian anti-air fire to them which allows the lethal munitions to get through to the target. Generally, the Gerbera does not carry a payload but a Ukrainian defender does not have the time to determine if the Gerbera is or is not a Geran-2 of Shahed 136 as they look much the same. This results in Ukrainian anti-air units having to expend ammunition (to include surface-to-air missiles [SAMs]) on the decoys when they could have been used against actual targets. While heavy machine-gun ammunition and light cannon ammunition is more readily available for resupply, the Ukrainian military does not have very large stocks of replacement SAMs for potent systems such as the MIM-104 Patriot, IRIS-T, MIM-23 Hawk, and NASAMS. This is one reason the Ukrainian military is using older SAMs to make up for expenditures. This includes the S-200 (SA-5 Gammon) and the even older S-125 (SA-3 Goa). In fact, Ukraine had retired the S-200 in 2013 but has since taken them out of mothballs starting in the summer of 2023.

     The Gerbera is primarily built from plywood with foam plastics to make them very inexpensive to produce, light, and also radio-frequency transparent (meaning, radio waves can pass through the drone with little to no interference). Power usually comes from a Chinese DLE60 2-stroke, 60cc ICE (Internal Combustion Engine) made by Mile Hao Xiang Technology. Some Gerbera have also been shown to use a slightly more powerful Stinger 70cc ICE made by the Chinese company RCGF Stinger Company, Ltd. Either rear mounted engine drives a wooden, 2-bladed propeller. Overall, the Gerbera is 6.6 feet long with a wingspan of 8.2 feet. This is a bit smaller than the Geran-2 which is 11 feet long but the Geran-2 shares the same wingspan as the Gerbera.

     A rather disturbing fact about the Gerbera is the number of components that are not Russian. Besides the Chinese engines, the electronics are from around the world...even from the United States. The XK-F358 mesh network (a broad band communication system for drone control) inside downed Gerbera drones has been proven to show hardware obtained from U.S. companies Analog Devices, Micron Technology, Xilinx Inc., Altera Corp., and even Texas Instruments. Other countries include Germany (Infineon Technologies), Ampleon (Netherlands), Realtek (Taiwan), and UIY, Inc. (China). Controlled radial pattern antennas and their related hardware (CPRA; used to protect GPS systems from interference/jamming) have been sourced from Analog Devices (United States), NXP Semiconductors (Netherlands), Integrated Silicon Solutions (United States), Monolithic Power Systems (United States), Linear Technology Corp. (United States), and again from Texas Instruments. So far, the 3-axis gimbal mounted camera used by the Gerbera comes from the Chinese company Topotek. Universal flight controllers and the hardware that goes with them is mainly Texas Instruments products. Other parts for the flight controllers has been obtained from XLSEMI (China), ATMEL Corp. (United States), U-Blox (Switzerland), STMicroelectronics (Switzerland), and NXP Semiconductors (Netherlands). Some downed Gerbera drones were found to be using Ukrainian SIM cards which permitted the drones to use Ukrainian high-speed connections for control guidance.

     Besides being a decoy, the Gerbera has also been shown to come in two other variants. The first is a loitering munition (much like the Geran-2 it mimics). At this task, it is not as successful as the Geran-2. It is believed the explosive payload is only 22 pounds compared to 198 pounds of the Geran-2. The normal decoy Gerbera has a range of around 186 miles but the loitering munition variant is thought to have a shorter range due to the added weight. Also, the camera used by the Gerbera is of a low quality, broadcasting using TV channels. It means the drone operator must manually fly the Gerbera into the target, much like a FPV drone, but without the superior maneuverability of a FPV drone. The second variant is used for reconnaissance, either using video cameras or gathering electronic data.

     As a note, the slogan scrawled on the left wing translates to “There will be no truce!”

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Latek Safari HG-105M Shotgun

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     The prevalence of FPV (First Person View) drones on the battlefields of the Russo-Ukrainian War has been seeing the continued expansion of the shotgun as a means to combat them. At first, civilian shotguns were appearing in the hands of both Ukrainian and Russian troops, such as vintage TOZ-34 and TOZ-66 shotguns (neither of which are pump-action). The Ukrainian military has been purchasing more modern shotguns, notably those produced by Turkish arms manufacturers. One such example is shown here in the hands of a soldier of the 36th. Marine Brigade “Mykhailo Bilynsky”. The weapon is the Safari HG-105M semi-automatic 12-gauge shotgun, built by the Ukrainian non-state arms manufacturer Latek LLC. This is a license-built variant of the HG-105 which is designed and produced by the Turkish company Hima Arms.

     Why are shotguns the preferred means to combat FPV drones? The reason is pretty basic. Shotguns throw a lot of metal pellets into the air which greatly increases the chances of striking a flying drone and potentially damaging it. The very common #00 (sometimes called “double ought”) buckshot shell contains 8 or 9 pellets, each .330 inches in diameter. #1 buckshot holds 12 to 16 pellets while #4 buckshot has 21 to 28 pellets though this comes at the expense of diameter size. Another advantage of buckshot is the spread of the pellets as they travel through the air. Thus, rather than relying on sheer luck to down a moving FPV drone with a pistol or rifle bullet, a single shotgun shell can hurl several projectiles into the air at one time with a single pull of the trigger. As such, the odds of a strike are increased. A skilled user will have conducted patterning with his weapon. This involves firing the shotgun at a target from different ranges to see how many pellets hit. Often, the further away the target is, the fewer pellets will hit. As such, by patterning, the firer will be able to tell the optimum engagement range in which the majority of pellets will hit.

     Specifics of the Safari HG-105M are not given (even on Latek's website) and so what follows are the specifications for the Hima Arms HG-105D to which the Safari HG-105M is most likely similar to. The receiver and a portion of the weapon's internals uses 6082 aluminum alloy while the furniture is polymer. The barrel, bolt, bolt carrier, and the lock is made of 4140 steel. Overall length of the HG-105D is 28.5 inches with a empty weight of 8.6 pounds. The HG-105D has interchangeable chokes (full, modified, and cylinder), allowing the user to optimize accuracy and range by constricting the barrel to maintain a tighter pellet pattern at longer ranges (full choke) or, if desired, the opposite...a wider spread at closer ranges (cylinder choke). A modified choke falls in between full and cylinder. The HG-105D can use either a 5-round or 10-round polymer magazine. There is a photograph of a Safari HG-105M in Ukrainian service with an extended “banana” magazine that looks to hold at least 15 rounds. There is a picatinny rail on top of the weapon for optics and it comes standard with flip-up sights. Being semi-automatic, it fires as fast as the operator can pull the trigger. Other features include a reversible charging handle and a height-adjustable cheek rest.

     At a full choke, the typical effective range for a shotgun is 150 feet or 45 meters. This is often good enough to engage a FPV drone that requires contact with the target in order to detonate. Likewise, it can be effective to tackle smaller drones which are used for bomb drops or reconnaissance. Of course, regardless, it requires the shotgun wielder to actually spot the drone in order to engage it as some drones are quite quiet until they are almost on top of the target.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Antonov An-196 Liutyi

Source: 14th. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Regiment

     The An-196 Liutyi ("Fierce"), shown here being prepped for a mission by personnel of the 14th. UAV Regiment, is produced by State Enterprise Antonov (a part of Ukroboronprom) and has been dubbed the “Ukrainian Shahed” (referencing the Iranian HESA Shahed 136 drones the Russians use) in media sources. The An-196 was developed in October 2022 and revealed a month later. 

     It is a pusher-design with the air-cooled, 4-valve engine in the rear, driving a 3-bladed propeller. The explosive payload of the An-196 is between 110 to 165 pounds which is wrapped in a fragmentation sleeve and the drone has a range in excess of 621 miles. The longest visually confirmed range achieved by an An-196 is 497 miles when one was downed by Russian anti-air defenses in the Ulyanovsk Oblast during an attack on the Syzran refinery in late April 2024. It is said the An-196 can attain a maximum range of 1,242 miles or more but this remains unverified. Such a range, if confirmed, may come at the expense of explosive payload capacity. 

     The drone uses a nose mounted impact fuze to detonate the warhead and guidance is a combination of satellite navigation and a onboard inertial navigation system. In addition, the An-196 uses a sophisticated flight computer system that allows it to autonomously change flight direction as needed as it flies towards the target. This is accomplished by pre-loading both navigation data and terrain data for the path into the computer. The drone can then compare what it “sees” externally and if they do not match, it can maneuver accordingly. For example, if a cellphone tower is not in the drone's data but the drone detects it in it's flight path, it will avoid it then return to its original trajectory. As such, it means that a drone operator isn't required to control the drone through its entire flight.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The BMP-2M "Berezhok"

Source: saintjavelin on Instagam

     What is likely the most bizarre ersatz anti-drone defense yet created is shown here, adorning a Russian BMP-2 IFV. The photograph started making the rounds of social media in the first week of May 2025. The defense consists of multiple lengths of heavy cables which have been unwound and the stranded steel wires that make up the cable splayed out into a cone-shaped arrangement. That the cable is heavy is because the steel wires are not bending and remain in the shape they were put into.

     It can be assumed that the intent of using such an odd method is to make it very difficult for a FPV drone operator to successfully fly his or her drone into the BMP-2 without the drone's propellers striking one or more of the wires and either becoming fouled in the wires or the propeller blades being damaged or broken. It is also possible that the wires may catch on a piece of the drone body such as on the zip-ties that are usually used to secure RPG warheads to the drone (as an example). One can imagine entering or exiting the BMP-2 is a tricky affair and that the wiring could be bent back if the vehicle runs through obstacles or closer confines such as urban terrain or wooded areas. In addition to the multiple wire bristle bunches, the BMP-2 also has the far more common anti-drone cage atop the turret. It is quite high and utilizes weighted chains on the sides rather than metal screens or chain link fencing.

     As for the exact make of the BMP-2, it looks to be a BMP-2M “Berezhok”. The name refers to the B05YA01 Berezhok (meaning “Shore”) combat module that replaces the standard BMP-2 turret. The new turret retains the 2A42 30mm autocannon and co-axial PKT 7.62mm machine-gun of the original BMP-2 but adds a AG-30M (or AGS-17) 30mm automatic grenade launcher (with 300 rounds) and two launch rails on each side of the turret for the 9M133M Kornet-M (NATO reporting name AT-14 Spriggan) anti-tank guided missile (ATGM). The BMP-2M “Berezhok” does not carry any reloads for the missiles and so only the four fitted to their launch rails are available. The standard 9M133 missile, which uses SACLOS (Semi-Automatic Command to Line Of Sight) laser beam riding guidance, can attain a maximum range of 3.4 miles can penetrate over 1,000mm of rolled homogeneous armor after explosive reactive armor (ERA) due to its tandem charge HEAT (High-Explosive Anti-Tank) warhead.

     Other upgrades to the BMP-2M “Berezhok” include six 81mm Type 902V Tucha smoke grenade launchers, a R-168 aqueduct intercom system for the crew, PL-1 laser illuminator, BPK-3-42 gunner's sight, 1PZ-13 commander's sight, laser range finder, and a ballistic computer tied into a “Redut” fire control system (FCS). The FCS can maintain tracking on multiple targets and can continually update firing solutions for all of the turret's weapons. Some vehicles may be equipped with the more powerful UTD-23 engine but this is more to compensate for the added 2 tons of weight due to the turret and armor (see below) as performance is the same as the regular BMP-2.

     For armor, the BMP-2M “Berezhok” has the same level of protection as the standard BMP-2 hull but some vehicles, like this one, utilize the 675-sb3KDZ add-on armor kit. This adds slat armor panels to the vehicle sides, front (missing here), turret circumference, and rear. In addition, the hull sides and the lower glacis of the front hull are fitted with polymer NERA (Non-Explosive Reactive Armor) blocks. These NERA blocks (in addition to the steel mounting plates the blocks are connected to) allow the BMP-2M “Berezhok” to withstand impacts from 12.7mm heavy machine-gun ammunition and some smaller anti-tank grenades.

For more information on the base BMP-2, visit:

https://photosofmilitaryhistory.blogspot.com/2025/01/russo-ukrainian-war-bmp-2-141st.html

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Praktika Kozak-5

Source: Reddit

     Photographed sometime in April 2025, a Kozak-5 infantry mobility vehicle (IMV) sports an extensive arrangement of anti-drone screens around the vehicle and what appears to be an anti-mine apparatus fitted to the front. The Kozak-5 (“Kozak” meaning “Cossack”) is a development of Ukrainian company Praktika's Kozak-1 which first appeared in 2009.

     The Kozak-5 is built using a variant of the chassis for the Ford F550 truck. While the Kozak-5 can be obtained with a stock chassis, it can be upgraded with a strengthened front axle housing, heavier shock absorbers and coil springs, and bigger wheels to support heavy-duty tires. A further upgrade involves replacing the regular axles with Meritor built axles which boost payload capacity by 2 tons on the front axle, even heavier springs and shock absorbers, Meritor quadratic brakes, CTIS (Central Tire Inflation System), and mil-spec wheels.

     For an engine, a Power Stroke 6.7 liter V8 diesel motor is installed with a 330 horsepower output. This is paired to a Torq Shift 10-R-140 automatic transmission with a 11-speed gearbox (10 forward, 1 reverse). On  the road, the Kozak-5 has a maximum speed of 93 miles per hour and with the onboard fuel capacity, the operational range is 497 miles.

     As an IMV, the Kozak-5 supports STANAG 4569 Level 2 armor protection as standard, using a steel alloy blend which has both a high hardness but also some plasticity. As such, the all-around defense can defeat Russian BZ 7.62x39mm API (Armor-Piercing Incendiary) ammunition at 30 meters. It also protects against 155mm HE (High-Explosive) shell fragments at 80 meters. The bullet-proof glass, made by Praktika, uses a sandwich of glass panes connected by polymer film layers. Against blasts from mines and IEDs, the Kozak-5 comes standard with STANAG 4569 Level 2a and 2b defense. Thus, it can withstand running over a 13 pound explosive charge within a pressure activated mine (Level 2a) and can also protect against a mine detonation underneath the center of the vehicle, again with a 13 pound explosive charge (Level 2b). Additional protection comes from an automatic fire extinguishing system, one for the engine and the other for the crew compartment.

     The Kozak-5 can be fitted out with three styles of turret. The first is the “basic turret” and that is shown in the photograph here. It consists of a front gun shield with two vision blocks, side shields with vision blocks, and a rear shield. Rear view mirrors are provided on the turret sides. The “simplistic design” is much as the first but without the front gun shield. Finally, there is the “closed design” which is a fully enclosed turret with bullet-proof glass vision panes and a roof hatch. The gun mount for all three turrets is designed for medium machine-guns like the 7.62mm PK. The turret is electrically rotated but can be manually rotated if need be. There are five gun ports (two per side and one in the rear) that permit passengers to utilize their small arms.

     Other systems include ergonomic seats (IMV model capacity is 9 men, including the two man crew), internal lighting, individual “goose-neck” lights for directed illumination, self-recovery winch, heater, and air-conditioning system (with an additional AC evaporator). Optional equipment includes video cameras, GPS navigation system, radio unit(s), black-out lighting, and a rear-view video camera for use by the driver.

     Returning to the photograph, the front screen is hinged to permit access to the hood for engine maintenance. There is a gap in the front screen arrangement to allow for a field of fire for the turret weapon (not fitted in this picture) though the overhead screen limits the area of attack by a FPV drone against the turret. The more interesting feature is the anti-mine apparatus. Each side has two thick rubberized material (likely conveyor belts) flaps, weighted at the bottom with a metal bar arrangement and chains can be seen which look to be what the strips are secured to via another metal bar. In turn, the chains are attached to the arms coming off the front of the Kozak-5. When in operation, the flaps would  drag along the ground and hopefully would catch any lever activated landmine and set it off before the Kozak-5's wheels did. It is similar to the KMT-6 mine ploughs Soviet-era tanks utilize to dig into the ground and push buried mines to the sides of the tank before the tracks hit them.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Skybike CRDX-200

Source: Ministry of Defense of Ukraine

     The usage of motorcycles in war is nothing new. In fact, they saw widespread use starting in World War One where motorcycles were used primarily by reconnaissance units for scouting but also served a more vital role as the mainstay of communication units where dispatch riders found the motorcycle indispensable as a means to relay documents and orders between units when radio links were not available. To a lesser extent, motorcycles were used as transport for personnel and supplies. More recently, special forces around the world have adopted motorcycles as they are easily airdropped, small, and provide rapid off-road movement. The advent of viable electric motorcycles able to handle the rigors of the battlefield have added an element of stealth for special forces operators who no longer have to worry about the obvious engine noise of conventional petrol powered motorcycles.

     However, what was quickly learned was that motorcycles have little place in assaults. It was tried in World War One and the outcome was a disaster and the concept quickly abandoned, never to return. That was until the Russo-Ukrainian War, which started in late February 2022. The Russian Federation, in response to high losses of armored vehicles and logistical vehicles, has seen units more and more fill out their ranks with ATVs, civilian cars and trucks, and motorcycles. While it would be within reason that such vehicles can work well enough behind the lines, Russian units use them on the front lines. Notably, motorcycles are used in direct assaults against Ukrainian lines. 

     The Russian logic for “assault motorcycles” on paper seems somewhat reasonable. Motorcycles are fast, permitting the infantrymen riding them to rapidly close with the enemy. Once near, they dismount and fight on foot. Second, motorcycles are not heavy enough to set off landmines designed to target far weightier armored personnel carriers. Third, motorcycles are more maneuverable in comparison to bigger and slower armored vehicles which makes the job of FPV drone operators a bit more difficult. Combine the latter with man-portable drone jammers, that job gets a little harder.

     But, the disadvantages of using motorcycles in the assault are pretty plain to see. Motorcycles are not armored nor do they offer the rider any measure of protection against bullets or artillery/rocket fragments. Secondly, the rider cannot deploy his weapon with anything close to usefulness. At least one hand needs to steer the motorcycle and being accurate while “one-handing” an AK-74 is pretty laughable. Third, the rider has to divide his attention between the enemy and the terrain, especially when “off-roading” lest he run into a shell hole or hit an obstacle. To be fair, a lot of Ukrainian terrain is relatively flat with low grass in areas where cropland is not able to be planted. Finally, Ukrainian FPV drone operators are more than capable of hitting a Russian motorcyclist at speed and drone jammers are absolutely no guarantee of safety. That is because there is no way of knowing if a particular drone running down a motorcycle is using a frequency that rider's EW (Electronic Warfare) device is capable of jamming. Needless to say, the Russian Federation is finding out what other countries learned a while ago...motorcycles in the assault does not produce worthwhile results. But that hasn't stopped the Russian Army and so losses are very high with motorcycle troops having quite a short lifespan.

     The Ukrainian Armed Forces, notably the Ukrainian Army and Ukrainian Special Forces, do utilize motorcycles. Besides being used for the age-old roles of dispatch and scouting, they are also used by logistical units to quickly run supplies to front-line troops. They are not used for assaulting Russian lines. The particular motorcycle seen here, used by a soldier (drone jammer on his back) of the 58th. Motorized Bridgade “Ivan Vyhovskyi”, is a Skybike CRDX-200. Skybike is a brand name held by the Chinese company Sky Team, Ltd. which is a manufacturer and exporter of motorcycles. The CRDX-200 has a retail cost of around $1,500USD.

     Power comes from a 1-cylinder, air-cooled, 4-stroke 197cc engine that develops 14.3 horsepower. It is paired to a mechanical, 5-speed transmission. The engine is provided with both electric start as well as the more standard mechanical kick starter. Maximum speed is 71 miles per hour. The fuel tank capacity is 1.5 gallons. The CRDX-200 uses front and rear disk brakes while for suspension, the front utilizes inverted telescopic forks while the rear is a pendulum-style monoshock absorber. Thanks to a lightweight steel tubular frame, impact-resistant plastic components, carbon alloy exhaust pipe, and light alloy front forks, the CRDX-200 weighs 220 pounds.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Gentex HGU-56/P Rotary Wing Helmet System

Source: inukraine_official on Instagram

     A Ukrainian WSO (Weapon Systems Officer) seated in the forward cockpit of a Mil Mi-24 (NATO reporting name Hind) helicopter gunship. He is wearing a decorated Gentex HGU-56/P Rotary Wing Helmet System, a popular flight helmet for Ukrainian Mi-24 pilots and WSOs rather than the vintage Soviet-era ZSH-3B helmets from the 1980s.

     The HGU-56/P has a weight of 2.95 pounds and features a Gentex attenuating liner within a graphite/aramid fiber shell. The liner not only reduces the effects of impact forces but is also shaped in such a way that the wearer's head is kept forward, increasing the field of view by 3 degrees (in comparison to similar helmets). While seemingly a very small number, the boosted view arc can mean the difference between spotting or not spotting a threat to the helicopter. The HGU-56/P uses a lightweight retention system the allows it to be compatible with HMD (Helmet Mounted Display) units, communication systems, and even oxygen delivery systems.

     The WSO has added the Gentex Maxillofacial Shield (MFS) for the HGU-56/P which is an optional add-on. The MFS weighs only 5 ounces but protects the wearer's lower face from flying debris (such as that kicked up by rotor wash) and can even resist fragmentation traveling at no more than 550 feet per second. Another benefit to the MFS is that the helmet's microphone (fitted to the left side of the helmet) is placed behind the MFS which reduces the ambient noise thereby enhancing clarity.

     Another piece of optional kit the WSO has on his helmet is a Wilcox DPAM (Dual Powered Aviation Mount) utilized for NVGs (Night Vision Goggles). On the back is a quick release plate which fits to the helmet. The DPAM uses a Lemo 4-pin connector which allows the NVG connected to the mount to run off the helicopter's power or, if need be, the DPAM has its own power supply via batteries to operate the NVG. The Lemo connector can be seen on the right side of the DPAM while the lever in the center of the mount is the switch for external power or battery power.

     While the “MILF Operator” patch and the other morale patches need little explanation, the WSO has drawn the chemical symbol for epinephrine on his helmet, better known as adrenaline.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The Sukhoi Su-25M1 Grach

Source: UKR_Air_Patrol on Instagram

     Another Soviet-era aircraft seeing heavy use in the Russo-Ukrainian War is shown here, the Sukhoi Su-25 Grach (“Rook”; NATO reporting name Frogfoot). Currently, all of the Su-25 aircraft in the Ukrainian Air Force are operated by the 299th. Tactical Aviation Brigade “Vasyl Nikiforov”. The particular aircraft in the photograph (which is not recent) is “Blue 08”, a Su-25M1, that was flown by Captain Vladyslav Voloshyn until the aircraft was shot down on August 29, 2014 by a MANPADS (Man Portable Air Defense System) or a SAM (Surface-to-Air Missile) system during the Battle of Ilovaisk which ran from August 7 to September 2, 2014. Voloshyn successfully ejected and it took him four days to make his way back to Ukrainian lines. The Su-25M1, and variants of it, remain the mainstay of the brigade's attack aircraft. The Su-25 is a dedicated ground attack/close air support aircraft, analogous to the U.S. Air Force's Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. Production started in 1978 with the first Soviet Air Force units fielding the Su-25 beginning in 1981. The last Su-25 rolled off the manufacturing line in 2017.

     The Su-25M1 (which is a Ukrainian modernization of the standard Su-25) is powered by two Tumansky (Gavrilov) R95Sh axial-flow, non-afterburning turbojets with each engine providing a maximum of 9,037 pounds of thrust. This is enough to provide the Su-25M1 with a maximum speed of 590 miles per hour at sea level. Maximum range is around 620 miles though with 9,700 pounds of war load and two external fuel tanks, a combat range of 470 miles can be achieved. The engines provide for a rate of climb of 11,400 feet per minute and the Su-25M1 has a service ceiling of 23,000 feet.

     Befitting a ground attack/support aircraft, the Su-25 has a number of features to enable it to survive and operate. In the nose is a Kylon-PS laser rangefinder/target designator, a DISS-7 Doppler speed/drift sensor beneath the cockpit (paired to the KN-23-1 [see below]), SSP-2I fire warning system with two UBSh-4-2 fire extinguishers, ASO-2V chaff/flare dispensers, SPO-15 Beryoza (“Birch”) radar homing warning system, AKS-5 gun camera, SO-69 transponder, SRZO-2 Khrom-Nikel IFF (Identification, Friend or Foe) interrogator with a SRO-2M Khrom IFF transponder, KN-23-1 navigation suite (which includes the RSBN-6S short-range radio navigation system, ARK-15M automatic direction finder, RV-15 radio altimeter, UUAP-72 angle-of-attack indicator/accelerometer, SVS-1-72-18 air data computer, PVD-18G-3M and PVD-7 pressure probes, and a MRP-56P marker beacon receiver), R-862 transceiver, R-828 VHF transmitter-receiver, and a ASP-17BTs-8 computing gun sight.

     The pilot sits within a tub made of ABVT-20 titanium alloy armor plates which range between 10mm to 24mm thick. The pilot is provided with a K-36L ejection seat and just behind the headrest is a 6mm thick plate of steel armor secured to the bulkhead. The canopy windshield is made of 65mm thick TSK-137 triplex bulletproof glass. To see behind him, the pilot has a rear facing periscope (atop the canopy) and two rear-view mirrors in the canopy frame. Because the Su-25 is not meant for high altitude flight, the cockpit is not pressurized. The cockpit is, however, NBC (Nuclear Biological Chemical) protected by an overpressure system and dust filters. The pilot wears a KP-52M oxygen mask, the aircraft's oxygen system providing a oxygen mix at altitudes of 1.2 to 4.3 miles and over that, up to the Su-25's ceiling, the pilot breathes pure oxygen. In case of ejection, the seat includes a BKO-3VZ emergency oxygen system.

     Other protective systems in the Su-25M1 include 20mm thick protective material around the fuel tanks while the fuel tanks themselves are fitted with explosion-suppression polyurethane foam. The Su-25M1 has two independent hydraulic systems that operate flight controls, braking, and the landing gear and this provides for redundancy in case of damage. The engines are capable of surviving, and will continue to operate, after taking a direct hit from a 23mm cannon shell. Despite this, armor plating is fitted on the underside of the aircraft, forward of the engine cowlings, as well as around the engine exhaust zone and rear parts of the engine nacelles. Armor is also added to the rear fuselage sides as well as armor fitted to the underside of the main service fuel tank within the fuselage. Flight controls, namely the elevator control rods, are duplicated to enhance survivability. In the tailcone are two PTK-25 cruciform brake parachutes.

     The main weapon of the Su-25M1 is the VPU-17A cannon installation that consists of a single Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-2-30 twin-barrel 30mm cannon which is provided with 250 rounds of belted ammunition. The cannon has a maximum rate of fire of 3,000 rounds per minute with a range of 1.1 miles. There are eleven hardpoints (four on each wing and three centerline) on the Su-25M1 which enables the aircraft to carry up to 8,800 pounds of stores. Common weapons carried include the S-5 55mm unguided rocket, the larger S-8 80mm unguided rocket, FAB-250 (550lb.) and FAB-500 (1,100lb.) free-fall bombs, and more recently, French-made AASM HAMMER guided bombs. If available, the Su-25M1 can utilize the SPPU-22 cannon pod which is equipped with a Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23 twin-barrel 23mm cannon and 260 rounds. Auxiliary fuel capacity can come from either the PTB-800 (176 gallons) or PTB-1150 (253 gallon) drop tanks. Up to four tanks can be carried.

     Specifically, the Ukrainian modernization program was carried out by MiGremont and included adding a new GPS receiver, upgrading the radio communication systems, enhancing the gun sight, and adding a digital flight data recorder. The modernization has allowed the Su-25M1 to fire the S-13 122mm unguided rockets.

     The 299th. Tactical Aviation Brigade started the Russo-Ukrainian War with twenty-four Su-25 of various models (to include two-seat trainers) operational. Since April 2023, mothballed Su-25s have been withdrawn from storage and refitted to replace losses. Another two Su-25 were obtained from Macedonia. Speaking of losses, there have been 10 confirmed Su-25 losses (based on their fuselage numbers) with nine pilots killed and one captured by Russian Federation forces. Another ten aircraft have also been reported lost (though what their fuselage numbers are isn't known) in combat and on the ground with the loss of four pilots as confirmed killed with another two pilots probable KIA. One pilot, Roman Vasyliuk, was shot down on March 14, 2022 and captured but later released on April 24, 2022 in a POW swap.

     As for Russian losses, to date, the Russian Air Force has lost thirty-eight Su-25 aircraft as confirmed by the Oryx website.

Russo-Ukrainian War: The General Dynamics F-16AM Fighting Falcon

Source: inukraine_official on Instagram

     The road to Ukraine receiving the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a story all to itself, mainly in the politics that held up the process. Ukraine formally requested the F-16 in late February 2022 in order to quickly update the Ukrainian Air Force's (UAF) air defense capability. Although the F-16 entered service in 1980, three years before the Mikoyan MiG-29, the F-16 has been in continual improvement cycles since its introduction which have allowed it to surpass the abilities of the MiG-29s of the UAF. Former President Joe Biden finally approved the supply of the F-16 to Ukraine in August 2023 but the UAF would not receive its first jets until July 2024. The specific model of F-16 the UAF is using is the F-16 Block 15 MLU (Mid-Life Update), designated the F-16AM, and they are not coming from the United States but from Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway. The pledges include thirty aircraft from Belgium (none delivered yet), nineteen from Denmark (none delivered yet), twenty-four from the Netherlands (a portion have been delivered), and twelve (plus 10 more for parts) from Norway. To date, only seven F-16s are operational with the UAF.

     The F-16AM is powered by a single Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 turbojet that can generate 23,830 pounds of thrust when on full afterburner. This provides for a maximum speed of 1,345 miles per hour and a cruise speed of 577 miles per hour. The service ceiling is 55,000 feet and a operational range of 1,407 miles.

     The majority of the MLU improvements are in the avionics. The biggest of these was upgrading the radar to the AN/APG-66(V)2 model. The AN/APG-66, designed by Westinghouse, first appeared in the 1970s and is the primary fire-control radar system for the F-16. The radar is of the X-band, pulse-Doppler type and uses a planar array, consisting of six LRUs (Line Replaceable Units) to ease repair/maintenance. Operating frequency range is between 6.2 to 10.9 gigahertz. The (V)2 variant boosts the detection range to 52 miles by incorporating enhancements that help in filtering out the effects of chaff, ground clutter, and jamming. The AN/APG-66 is a look down/shoot down system which means it uses a PRF (Pulse-Repetition Frequency) which allows the radar to sift through ground clutter, locate targets, and enable the engagement of targets below the F-16AM. Likewise, the radar has look up/shoot up capability. The search cone is 120 degrees by 120 degrees.

     Other updates included an improved IFF (Identification, Friend or Foe) which permits the F-16 to utilize BVR (Beyond Visual Range) munitions that exceed the onboard radar's range. Additional changes include redesigned cockpit displays, updated EW (Electronic Warfare) systems, new communication sets, updated flight controls to improve low-altitude handling, and the ability to integrate with U.S. AN/AAQ-14 LANTIRN (Low Altitude Navigation & Targeting Infrared for Night) and AN/AAQ-28 Litening targeting pods. Ukrainian pilots are equipped with the JHMCS (Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System)

     The only built-in armament of the F-16AM is the General Electric M61A1 Vulcan 20mm, 6-barrel rotary cannon. A total of 511 rounds is carried. Hydraulically operated and electrically fired, the M61A1 can spit out 6,000 rounds per minute. The typical ammunition load is the reliable M56A3/A4 HEI (High-Explosive Incendiary) round. The M56 can create a blast radius against ground targets out to 6.6 feet with a shrapnel hazard out to 66 feet. Against armor, the round can penetrate 13mm of rolled homogeneous armor at 0 degrees slope at a range of 341 feet. The effective range of the M61A1 is 1.9 miles.

     For hardpoints, the F-16AM has two wing-tip rails, a total of six under-wing hardpoints, and three centerline hardpoints for a total war load capacity of 17,000 pounds. The F-16 can utilize a whole host of ordnance and so to go through all of them would make for a short novel. As such, ordnance seen in use by the UAF's F-16AM jets include: AIM-9 Sidewinder (infrared guided, short range AAM [Air-to-Air Missile]), AIM-120 AMRAAM (Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile), and the GBU-39 250 pound glide SDB (Small Diameter Bomb). Other equipment seen on hardpoints include the AN/ALQ-131 ECM (Electronic Countermeasures) pod, Sargent Fletcher manufactured 370 gallon drop tanks, and Terma (a Danish company) built PIDS+ (Pylon Integrated Dispensing System Plus) and ECIPS+ (Electronic Combat Integrated Pylon System Plus). The latter two systems are defensive packages that include MAWS (Missile Approach Warning System), chaff dispensers, flare dispensers, radar warning system (alerting the pilot when his aircraft is “painted” by a radar system), and a homing receiver warning system (again, alerting the pilot when his aircraft is being targeted by a homing radar). As a note, the specific models of the Sidewinder seen include the AIM-9L, AIM-9M and AIM-9X while the AMRAAM has been seen in the AIM-120B and AIM-120C variants.

     In the photograph, visible are AIM-120C missiles on the wing-tip rails and AIM-9M on a wing hardpoints along with what appears to be a Terma ECIPS+ on the plane nearest the viewer. The aircraft also have drop tanks. Also, at least two of the F-16AMs retain their Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) paint and on the furthest F-16AM, the rectangle on the vertical stabilizer is the painted over RNLAF tail code. The same plane shows a lot of carbon scoring around the gun port for the M61A1.

     So far, the UAF has primarily deployed their F-16AM fighters in the air defense role, combating Russian cruise missiles and the 9K720 Iskander (NATO reporting name SS-26 Stone) short-range ballistic missiles. More rarely, the F-16AM is sortied for ground attack missions due to not having air superiority and the risk to the pilot and plane from anti-aircraft fire (MANPADS, mobile SAM systems, and the like).

     To date, the UAF has lost one F-16AM along with its pilot, Lieutenant Colonel Oleksii Mes, call sign Moonfish. He was killed on August 26, 2024 during a mission to combat a Russian mass aerial attack consisting of some 120 missiles and over 100 drones. According to Ukrainian sources, Mes destroyed three cruise missiles and one drone before being downed and killed. How he was downed was initially unknown. A U.S. official said it was pilot error, something that the UAF refuted. Ultimately, it was found that Mes was shot down by friendly ground fire during the attack, the weapon having been a MIM-104 Patriot missile.

Portrait: Chasseur Alpins Caporal, 1902

Source: Author's Collection

     At the thrift was this picture, measuring 14” x 16”, of a soldier. It looks to be heavily retouched and is on thick board. The only writing is the date, 1902, on the back. So, down the rabbit hole I went. My best, educated guess, is that the man is French and belongs to a chasseurs alpins (“Alpine Hunters”) unit. Formed in 1888, the chasseurs alpins are the French Army's mountain infantry, specifically trained to operate in mountainous terrain.

     My guesswork is based on a few things. The first is the tunic, which bears a resemblance to the French Army Modèle 1893 jacket. This one looks to have four front pockets, evidenced only by the flaps. Some searching shows the pocket count tended to vary but the overall cut was the same. It has the nine buttons as typical for the type. Now, chasseurs alpins enlisted jackets tended to have a broad lapel collar while officers usually had the collar as seen here. Of course, it is possible that this soldier had a jacket with a smaller lapel that could be upturned and closed at the throat. Now, the most telling evidence is the chevrons on the sleeves. They are dead ringers for the enlisted rank chevrons used by the chasseurs alpins. Although hard to see, this soldier has two stripes per sleeve, giving him the rank of “caporal” or Lance corporal. The final item that swayed my opinion is the mustache, a facial hair fashion readily worn by chasseurs alpins soldiers at the time.

     The visible handle and hilt of the bayonet appears to be that used with the French Berthier Modèle 1982 rifle.